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OUR 
NATIONAL  FORESTS 

A  SHORT  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 
WORK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOREST 
SERVICE  ON  THE  NATIONAL  FORESTS 


BY 
RICHARD  H.  DOUAI  BOERKER,  M.S.F.,Pn.D. 

Arboriculturist,  Department  of  Parks,  City  of  New  York. 
With  the  United  States  Forest  Service  from  1910  to  1917. 


Jl3eto  gorfe 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1918 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1918 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


Set  up   and  electrotyped.      Published,    September,   1918 

v 


library 


OM.  should  this  humble  volume 
seek  to  honor  but  the  father  and 
mother  whose  unselfish  devotion  made 
possible  both  my  education  and  my 
profession?  .'.  .'.  .".  .*.  .*. 


385966 


The  highest  type  of  scientific  writing  is  that  which  sets 
forth  useful  scientific  facts  in  language  which  is  interesting 
and  easily  understood  by  the  millions  who  read. 

L.  A.  MANN. 


PREFACE 

Forestry  is  a  vast  subject.  It  has  to  do  with 
farm  and  forest,  soil  and  climate,  man  and  beast. 
It  affects  hill  and  valley,  mountain  and  plain.  It 
influences  the  life  of  cities,  states,  and  nations. 
It  deals  not  only  with  the  manifold  problems  of 
growing  timber  and  forest  by-products,  such  as 
forage,  naval  stores,  tanbark,  and  maple  sugar,  but 
it  is  intimately  related  to  the  navigability  of  rivers 
and  harbors,  the  flow  of  streams,  the  erosion  of  hill- 
sides, the  destruction  of  fertile  farm  lands,  the 
devastation  wrought  by  floods,  the  game  and  birds 
of  the  forest,  the  public  health,  and  national  pros- 
perity. 

The  practice  of  forestry  has,  therefore,  become 
an  important  part  in  the  household  economy  of 
civilized  nations.  Every  nation  has  learned, 
through  the  misuse  of  its  forest  resources,  that  for- 
est destruction  is  followed  by  timber  famines, 
floods,  and  erosion.  Mills  and  factories  depending 
upon  a  regular  stream  flow  must  close  down,  or  use 

vii 


viu  PREFACE 

other  means  for  securing  their  power,  which  usually 
are  more  expensive.  Floods,  besides  doing  enor- 
mous damage,  cover  fertile  bottom-lands  with 
gravel,  bowlders,  and  debris,  which  ruins  these 
lands  beyond  redemption.  The  birds,  fish,  and 
game,  which  dwell  in  the  forests,  disappear  with 
them.  Springs  dry  up  and  a  luxurious,  well- 
watered  country  becomes  a  veritable  desert.  In 
short,  the  disappearance  of  the  forests  means  the 
disappearance  of  everything  in  civilization  that  is 
worth  while. 

These  are  the  lessons  that  some  of  the  world's 
greatest  nations  have  learned,  in  some  cases  through 
sad  experience.  The  French  people,  after  neglect- 
ing their  forests,  following  the  French  Revolution, 
paid  the  penalty.  France,  through  her  reckless 
cutting  in  the  mountain  forests,  has  suffered  and  is 
still  suffering  from  devastating  floods  on  the  Seine 
and  other  streams.  Over  one  million  acres  were 
cut  over  in  the  mountains,  and  the  slash  and  young 
growth  that  was  left  was  destroyed  by  fire.  As  a 
result  of  this  forest  destruction  the  fertility  of  over 
8,000,000  acres  of  tillable  land  was  destroyed  and 
the  population  of  eighteen  departments  was  im- 
poverished or  driven  out.  Now,  although  over 


PREFACE  ix 

1,000,000  has  been  expended,  only  a  very  small 
part  of  the  damage  has  been  repaired. 

Our  own  country  has  learned  from  its  own  expe- 
riences and  from  the  experiences  of  nations  like 
France.  On  a  small  scale  we  have  endured  the 
same  devastating  floods.  Forest  fires  in  the 
United  States  have  caused  an  average  annual  loss 
of  seventy  human  lives  and  from  $25,000,000  to 
$50,000,000  worth  of  timber.  The  indirect  losses 
run  close  to  a  half  a  billion  a  year.  Like  other  na- 
tions, we  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  forest 
conservation  can  be  assured  only  through  the  public 
ownership  of  forest  resources.  Other  nations  have 
bought  or  otherwise  acquired  national,  state,  and 
municipal  forests,  to  assure  the  people  a  never- 
failing  supply  of  timber.  For  this  reason,  mainly, 
our  own  National  Forests  have  been  created  and 
maintained. 

The  ever-increasing  importance  of  the  forestry 
movement  in  this  country,  which  brings  with  it  an 
ever-increasing  desire  for  information  along  for- 
estry lines,  has  led  me  to  prepare  this  volume  deal- 
ing with  our  National  Forests.  To  a  large  extent 
I  write  from  my  own  experience,  having  come  in 
contact  with  the  federal  forestry  movement  for 


x  PREFACE 

more  than  ten  years.  My  connection  with  the 
United  States  Forest  Service  in  various  parts  of 
the  West  has  given  me  ample  opportunity  to  study 
every  phase  of  the  problem.  I  am  attempting  to 
chronicle  a  wonderful  accomplishment  by  a  won- 
derful organization  of  altruistic  Americans, — an  ac- 
complishment of  which  every  American  has  reason 
to  feel  proud. 

Few  people  realize  that  the  bringing  under  ad- 
ministration and  protection  of  these  vast  forests  is 
one  of  the  greatest  achievements  in  the  history  of 
forest  conservation.  To  place  155,000,000  acres  of 
inaccessible,  mountainous,  forest  land,  scattered 
through  our  great  western  mountain  ranges  and  in 
eighteen  Western  States,  under  administration,  to 
manage  these  forests  according  to  scientific  forestry 
principles,  to  make  them  yield  a  revenue  of  almost 
$3,500,000  annually,  and  to  protect  them  from  the 
ravages  of  forest  fires  and  reducing  the  huge  an- 
nual loss  to  but  a  small  fraction  of  what  it  was 
before — these  are  some  of  the  things  that  have  been 
accomplished  by  the  United  States  Forest  Service 
within  the  last  twenty  years. 

Not  only  is  this  a  great  achievement  in  itself,  but 
few  people  realize  what  the  solution  of  the  National 


PREFACE  xi 

Forest  problem  has  meant  to  the  millions  of  people 
who  live  near  them;  what  it  has  meant  to  bring 
civilization  to  the  great  forested  empire  of  Uncle 
Sam ;  what  it  has  meant  to  change  from  a  condition 
of  unrestricted,  unregulated  misuse  with  respect  to 
the  public  domain,  to  a  policy  of  wise,  regulated 
use,  based  upon  the  principle  of  the  greatest  good 
to  the  greatest  number  in  the  long  run.  In  the 
early  days  before  the  Forest  Service  organization 
became  established,  the  people  were  said  to  have 
"shot-gun  titles"  to  timber  or  grazing  lands  on  the 
public  domain,  and  "might  made  right"  in  the  tru- 
est sense  of  the  word.  This  crude  condition  of 
affairs  gave  way  to  wise,  conservative  use  under 
government  control.  Just  as  the  farmer  each  year 
sets  aside  a  certain  amount  of  his  seed  for  next 
year's  planting,  just  so  the  stockman  saves  his 
calves  and  cows  and  lambs  for  greater  growth  and 
each  year  sees  a  part  of  his  herd  maturing  for  mar- 
ket, and  just  so  the  forester,  under  the  new  system, 
cuts  only  the  mature  trees  and  allows  the  young 
timber  to  remain  for  greater  growth  and  greater 
value  in  the  future,  or,  in  the  absence  of  young 
trees,  plants  small  trees  to  replace  those  removed. 
The  people  of  the  West  are  convinced  that  a 


xii  PREFACE 

great  work  has  been  done  well  and  wisely.  The 
people  of  the  Eastern  States  will  soon  realize  that 
a  similar  forest  policy,  already  inaugurated  in  the 
Appalachian  and  White  Mountains,  will  mean 
every  bit  as  much  to  them. 

If  I  succeed  only  in  a  small  degree  to  make  my 
reader  appreciate  the  great  significance  of  the  Na- 
tional Forest  movement  to  our  national  economy, 
I  will  feel  amply  repaid  for  the  time  spent  in  pre- 
paring this  brief  statement.  I  am  indebted  to  the 
Forest  Service  for  many  valuable  illustrations  used 
with  the  text,  and  for  data  and  other  valuable  as- 
sistance. To  all  those  who  have  aided  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  this  volume,  by  reading  the  manuscript  or 
otherwise,  I  extend  my  sincere  thanks.  I  am  espe- 
cially grateful  to  Mr.  Herbert  A.  Smith  and  others 
of  the  Washington  office  of  the  Forest  Service  for 
having  critically  read  the  manuscript  and  for  hav- 
ing offered  valuable  suggestions. 

RICHARD  JEL  DOUAI  BOERKER. 

New  York,  N.  Y., 
July  7,  1918. 


INTRODUCTION 

FORESTRY  AS  A   NATIONAL   PROBLEM 

The  forest  problem  is,  both  locally  and  nation- 
ally, of  vital  internal  importance.  Not  only  is 
wood — the  chief  product  of  the  forest — indispen- 
sable to  our  daily  life,  but  the  forest  plays  an  im- 
portant role  in  regulating  stream  flow,  thereby  re- 
ducing the  severity  of  floods  and  preventing  ero- 
sion. For  these  reasons  the  preservation  of  forests 
ceases  to  be  a  problem  of  private  or  individual  con- 
cern, but  forthwith  becomes  a  governmental  prob- 
lem, or,  at  best,  an  enterprise  which  should  be 
jointly  controlled  by  the  National  Government  and 
the  individual  States. 

Our  Consumption  of  Wood.  It  is  often  said 
that  wood  enters  into  our  daily  life  from  the  time 
we  are  born  until  we  die — from  the  cradle  to  the 
coffin.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine  a  civilization  with- 
out wood.  In  our  country  in  a  single  year  we  use 
90,000,000  cords  of  firewood,  nearly  40,000,000,000 
feet  of  lumber,  150,000,000  railroad  ties,  nearly 
1,700,000,000  barrel  staves,  445,000,01)0  board  feet 
of  veneer,  over  135,000,000  sets  of  bay  el  headings, 

xiii 


xiv  INTRODUCTION 

over  350,000,000  barrel  hoops,  over  3,300,000  cords 
of  native  pulp  wood,  170,000,000  cubic  feet  of  round 
mine  timbers,  nearly  1,500,000  cords  of  wood  for 
distillation,  over  140,000  cords  for  excelsior,  and 
nearly  3,500,000  telephone  and  telegraph  poles. 
In  short,  we  take  from  our  forests  yearly,  including 
waste  in  logging  and  manufacture,  more  than 
twenty-two  billion  cubic  feet  of  wood  valued  at 
about  $1,375,000,000.  This  is  enough  lumber  to 
construct  seven  board  walks  twenty-five  feet  wide 
from  the  earth  to  the  moon,  a  distance  of  about 
240,000  miles,  or  a  board  walk  one-third  of  a  mile 
wide  completely  around  the  earth  at  the  equator. 
These  figures  give  a  little  idea  of  the  enormous 
annual  drainage  upon  the  forests  of  the  United 
States  and  immediately  suggest  an  important  rea- 
son that  led  to  the  establishment  of  our  National 
Forests. 

The  Lumber  Industry.  Measured  by  the  num- 
ber of  persons  employed,  lumbering  is  the  coun- 
try's largest  manufacturing  industry.  In  its  48,- 
000  saw  mills  it  employs  more  than  600,000  men. 
Its  investment  in  these  plants  is  over  $1,000,- 
000,000,  and  the  investment  in  standing  timber 
is  $1,500,000,000  more,  This  industry  furnishes 


INTRODUCTION  xv 

the  railroads  a  traffic  income  of  over  $200,000,- 
000  annually.  If  we  include  in  these  statistics 
also  the  derived  wood  products,  we  find  that  over 
1,000,000  wage  earners  are  employed,  and  that  the 
products  and  derived  products  are  valued  at  over 
$2,000,000,000  annually.  Most  certainly  we  are 
dealing  with  a  very  large  business  enterprise. 

Our  Future  Lumber  Supply.  You  may  ask, 
"What  effect  have  the  great  annual  consumption  of 
wood  and  these  large  business  interests  upon  the 
future  supply  of  wood?"  The  most  reliable  sta- 
tistics show  that  out  of  5,200  billion  feet  of  mer- 
chantable timber  which  we  once  possessed,  only 
2,900  billion  feet  are  left.  In  other  words,  almost 
half  of  our  original  supply  of  timber  has  been  used. 
Besides,  the  present  rate  of  cutting  for  all  purposes 
exceeds  the  annual  growth  of  the  forests.  Even 
the  annual  growth  is  considered  by  many  experts 
of  unknown  quantity  and  quality,  to  some  extent 
offset  by  decay  in  virgin  forests.  The  only  logical 
conclusion  to  draw  from  this  condition  of  affairs,  if 
the  present  rate  of  consumption  continues,  is  a  tim- 
ber shortage  in  so  far  as  our  most  valuable  woods 
are  concerned.  In  view  of  this  it  is  fortunate  that 
the  National  Government  began  to  control  the 


xvi  INTRODUCTION 

lumber  and  forest  situation  by  the  creation  of 
National  Forests  and  the  institution  of  scientific 
forestry  practice. 

Forests  and  Stream  Flow.  But  the  forests  not 
only  supply  us  with  wood.  For  other  reasons  they 
deserve  governmental  consideration.  The  forests  v 
in  the  mountains  control  our  streams,  vitally  affect 
the  industries  depending  upon  water  power,  reduce 
the  severity  of  floods  and  erosion,  and  in  this  way 
are  intimately  wrapped  up  with  our  great  agricul- 
tural interests.  For  this  reason  forestry  is  by  na- 
ture less  suited  for  private  enterprise.  In  agricul- 
ture and  horticulture  the  influence  of  the  farm  or 
the  fruit  crop  rarely  extends  beyond  the  owner's 
fence.  What  I  plant  in  my  field  does  not  affect 
my. neighbors;  they  share  neither  in  my  success  or 
failure.  If  by  the  use  of  poor  methods  I  ruin  the 
fertility  of  my  farm,  this  fact  does  not  influence 
the  fertility  of  my  neighbor's  fields.  But  in  for- 
estry it  is  different.  Unfortunately,  just  as  the 
sins  of  the  fathers  are  visited  upon  their  children, 
so  the  sins  of  the  mountains  are  visited  upon  the 
valleys. 

The   mountainous    slopes    of   the    Appalachian 
ranges  and  the  steep,  broken,  granite  ridges  of  the 


INTRODUCTION  xvii 

Rockies,  the  Sierras,  and  the  Cascades  are  the  sites 
most  suited  in  our  country  for  forestry  purposes. 
The  Appalachian  ranges  have  been  affected  most 
by  the  reckless  cutting  of  forests.  When  these 
mountains  were  clothed  with  forests,  the  rivers  ran 
bank  full,  ships  came  to  the  harbors  at  low  tide  with 
ease,  and  factories  and  cotton-mills  ran  steadily  all 
year  long.  Since  the  destruction  of  these  forests 
the  surrounding  country  has  suffered  from  alter- 
nate floods  and  droughts ;  great  manufacturing  cen- 
ters have  lost  their  steady  supply  of  water ;  harbors 
are  filled  with  silt  from  the  mountain  sides;  and 
fields,  once  fertile,  are  covered  with  sand,  gravel, 
and  debris,  deposited  by  the  ungovernable  stream. 
These  forests  belonged  to  private  individuals  who 
disposed  of  the  timber  and  pocketed  all  the  profits, 
while  the  community  below  suffered  all  the  loss. 
In  other  words,  private  ownership  is  inadequate 
since  private  interest  and  private  responsibility  are 
not  sufficiently  far-reaching  and  far-sighted. 

Forests  and  Erosion.  Erosion  is  one  of  the  most 
serious  dangers  that  threaten  our  farms  both  by 
transporting  fertile  soil  and  by  covering  the  bottom- 
lands with  sand,  gravel,  and  debris.  Since  we  are 
largely  an  agricultural  people,  the  importance  of 


xviii  INTRODUCTION 


JJi 

this  problem  will  be  readily  appreciated.  Over  50 
per  cent,  of  our  population  is  rural,  and  the  annual 
production  of  farm  crops  has  a  value  of  over  $5,- 
500,000,000.  Farm  uplands  are  washed  away  or 
eroded  by  high  water,  and  high  water  is  largely 
caused  by  the  destruction  of  the  forests  on  the 
mountain  slopes.  With  the  forest  cover  removed, 
there  is  nothing  to  obstruct  the  flow  of  water  down 
the  mountain  sides.  Raindrops  beating  on  the 
bare  soil  make  it  hard  and  compact  so  that  most  of 
the  water  runs  off  instead  of  being  absorbed  by  the 
subsoil,  with  the  result  that  a  heavy  rain  storm 
rushes  down  through  the  valleys  in  a  few  days  in- 
stead of  a  few  weeks,  tears  out  the  river  banks, 
floods  the  lowlands,  and  deposits  upon  them  the 
rocks  and  gravel  carried  down  from  the  mountains. 
The  most  effective  means  for  preventing  the  erosion 
and  destruction  of  our  farmlands  is  by  the  wise  use 
of  the  forests  at  the  headwaters  of  the  rivers. 

Forestry  a  Public  Enterprise.  From  what  has 
been  said  it  will  be  seen  that  forestry  is  a  national 
business  rather  than  an  individual's.  Moreover,  it 
is  of  such  a  protracted  nature,  reaching  continu- 
ously into  such  long  periods  of  time,  demanding  so 


Figure  2.  A  typical  National  Forest  landscape  in  the  high  moun- 
tains. Potosi  Peak,  13,763  feet,  from  Yankee  Boy  Basin,  Uncam- 
pahgre  National  Forest,  Ouray  County,  Colorado. 


INTRODUCTION  xix 

many  years  of  time  and  patience  to  see  the  expected 
and  promised  results,  that  an  individual  would  not 
live  to  see  the  success  of  his  labors.  Thejndividual 
becomes  easily  discouraged  and  is  especially  affected 
by  financial  conditions.  The  Government,  on  the 
other  hand,  having  unlimited  resources  at  its  com- 
mand can  more  readily  afford  to  wait  for  results. 
In  fact  every  consideration  of  national  welfare 
urges  the  Government  to  carry  it  on;  it  is  a  sure 
source  of  revenue,  there  is  none  less  fluctuating,  and 
it  is  closely  connected  with  the  manifold  industries 
of  life.  Its  chief  product  is  wood,  without  which 
the  human  race,  so  far,  has  not  succeeded  in  manag- 
ing its  affairs,  and  which  will  therefore  always  have 
a  sale  value. 

THE   EXTENT  AND   CHARACTER   OF   OUR 
NATIONAL   FORESTS 

'V 

How  the  Government  Obtained  the  National 
Forest  Lands.  Probably  the  first  question  that  will 
occur  to  my  reader  concerning  the  National  Forests 
is,  How  did  the  Government  acquire  them?  To 
answer  this  question  we  have  but  to  turn  back  the 
pages  of  history  to  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary 


xx  INTRODUCTION 

War.  Following  this  war,  our  country  started  on 
its  career  of  continental  conquest.  This  conquest 
was  largely  a  peaceful  one  because  most  of  the  west- 
ern country  was  acquired  by  treaty  or  purchase, 
thus:  Louisiana  Territory  was  purchased  from 
France  in  1803;  Texas  applied  for  admission  into 
the  Union  in  1845;  Oregon  Territory  was  acquired 
by  treaty  from  Great  Britain  in  1846;  the  present 
states  of  California,  Nevada,  Utah,  New  Mexico, 
and  Arizona  were  ceded  to  us  as  a  result  of  the 
Mexican  War  in  1848;  and  the  Gadsden  Purchase 
was  obtained  from  Mexico  in  1853  and  added  to 
the  territory  of  New  Mexico.  Then  also  Alaska 
was  finally  purchased  from  Russia  in  1867.  These 
large  acquisitions,  comprising  together  the  western 
two  thirds  of  the  United  States,  were  gradually 
divided  into  territories.  Later  they  became  States, 
and  were  opened  up  to  settlement  and  development 
by  means  of  various  land  and  mining  laws  and  large 
railroad  grants.  The  National  Forests  are  com- 
posed of  the  land  most  valuable  for  growing  timber, 
that  has  not  been  acquired  in  some  way  by  private 
individuals,  in  the  western  part  of  the  United 
States. 

The  Romance  of  the  National  Forest  Region. 


INTRODUCTION  xxi 

This  vast  expanse  west  of  the  Mississippi  River 
boasts  of  some  of  the  wildest  and  most  romantic 
scenery  on  the  North  American  continent,  and  it  is 
in  the  heart  of  this  picturesque  country  that  the  Na- 
tional Forests  are  located.  This  is  the  country  in 
which  Owen  Wister,  Harold  Bell  Wright,  Stewart 
Edward  White,  Jack  London,  Theodore  Roosevelt, 
and  other  authors  have  gotten  their  inspirations 
and  laid  their  plots.  To  one  who  knows  "The  Vir- 
ginian," or  "When  a  Man's  a  Man,"  or  "The  Win- 
ning of  Barbara  Worth,"  or  "The  Valley  of  the 
Moon,"  nothing  more  need  be  said.  To  others  I 
might  say  that  my  pen  picture  of  that  country  is  a 
very  poor  and  very  inadequate  method  of  descrip- 
tion. It  is  the  land  of  the  cow-puncher,  the  sheep- 
herder,  and  the  lumber- jack;  a  land  of  crude  cus- 
toms and  manners,  but,  withal,  generous  hospitality. 
It  is  the  country  of  the  elk  and  the  mule-tail  deer, 
the  mountain  lion  and  the  rattlesnake.  Its  gran- 
deur makes  you  love  it ;  its  vastness  makes  you  fear 
it ;  yet  there  is  an  irresistible  charm,  a  magic  lure,  an 
indescribable  something  tlfet  stamps  an  indelible 
impression  upon  the  mind  and  that  makes  you  want 
to  go  back  there  after  you  have  sworn  an  oath  never 
to  return. 


xxii  INTRODUCTION 

This  National  Forest  empire  presents  a  great  va- 
riety of  scenery,  of  forest,  and  of  topography.  The 
beautiful  white  pine  forests  of  Idaho  and  Montana, 
the  steep  pine-  and  spruce-clad  granite  slopes  of  the 
Colorado  Rockies,  and  the  sun-parched  mesas  of 
the  Southwest,  with  their  open  park-like  forests  of 
yellow  pine,  all  have  their  individual  charm.  And 
after  crossing  the  well-watered  Cascades  and  Sierra 
Nevadas  we  find  forest  scenery  entirely  different. 
The  dense,  luxuriant,  giant-forests  of  the  coast  re- 
gion of  Oregon  and  Washington,  bathed  in  an  al- 
most continual  fog  and  rain,  are  without  doubt  the 
most  wonderful  forests  in  the  world.  And  lastly, 
California,  so  far  as  variety  of  forest  scenery  is  con- 
cerned, has  absolutely  no  rival.  The  open  oak 
groves  of  the  great  valleys,  the  arid  pine-  and  oak- 
covered  foothills,  the  valuable  sugar  pine  and  "big- 
tree"  groves  of  the  moist  mountain  slopes,  and  the 
dwarfed  pine  and  hemlock  forests  near  the  serrated 
crest  of  the  Sierras,  all  occur  within  a  comparatively 
short  distance  of  each  other,  and,  in  fact,  may  be 
seen  in  less  than  a  day  on  any  one  of  the  many 
National  Forests  in  these  mountains. 

Famous   Scenic    Wonders   Near   the    Forests. 


INTRODUCTION  xxiii 

Many  of  the  beautiful  National  Parks  that  have 
been  created  by  Congress  are  either  entirely  or 
partly  surrounded  by  one  or  more  of  the  National 
Forests.  These  parks  are  a  Mecca  to  which  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  our  people  make  their  annual 
pilgrimage.  Most  of  these  parks  are  already  fa- 
mous for  their  scenery,  and,  in  consequence,  the 
National  Forests  surrounding  them  have  received 
greater  patronage  and  fame.  The  Glacier  Na- 
tional Park  in  Montana,  the  Yellowstone  in  Wy- 
oming, the  Rocky  Mountain  in  Colorado,  the 
Mount  Rainier  in  Washington,  the  Crater  Lake  in 
Oregon,  the  Wind  Cave  in  South  Dakota,  and  the 
Lassen  Peak  Volcanic  Park,  the  Yosemite,  General 
Grant,  and  Sequoia  parks  in  California,  are  all  sit- 
uated in  the  heart  of  the  National  Forest  region. 

The  highest  and  best-known  mountain  peaks  in 
the  United  States  are  either  located  within  or  situ- 
ated near  the  National  Forests,  as,  for  example, 
Rainier  and  Olympus  in  Washington;  Hood, 
Baker,  St.  Helens,  Jefferson,  and  Adams  in  Ore- 
gon; Shasta,  Lassen,  and  Whitney  in  California; 
and  Pikes  Peak  in  Colorado. 

Then  there  are  the  National  Monuments,   of 


xxiv  INTRODUCTION 

which  there  are  eleven,  all  situated  within  one  or 
more  of  the  National  Forests.  These  were  created 
under  an  act  of  Congress  for  the  preservation  of 
objects  of  historic  or  scientific  interest.  The  lar- 
gest monument,  and  no  doubt  the  most  famous,  is 
the  Grand  Canyon  National  Monument  located  in 
the  Tusayan  and  Kaibab  National  Forests  in  Ari- 
zona, comprising  over  800,000  acres.  The  next 
largest  is  the  Mount  Olympus  Monument  on  the 
Olympic  National  Forest  in  Washington,  compris- 
ing almost  300,000  acres.  Other  well-known  mon- 
uments are  the  Cinder  Cone  and  the  Lassen  Peak 
Monuments  on  the  Lassen  National  Forest  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  the  Cliff  Dwellings  on  the  Gila  National 
Forest  in  New  Mexico. 

The  Size  and  Extent  of  the  National  Forests. 
With  this  brief  introduction  of  the  nature  of  the 
country  in  which  the  National  Forests  are  located, 
the  reader  will  be  interested  to  know  something  of 
the  size  of  the  Forests  and  their  total  area.  The 
total  area  varies  slightly  from  time  to  time,  due  to 
the  addition  of  lands  that  have  been  found  to  have 
value  for  forestry  purposes,  or  to  the  elimination  of 
lands  found  to  be  chiefly  valuable  for  agricultural 
use.  On  June  30,  1917,  there  were  147  National 


INTRODUCTION  xxv 

Forests  with  a  total  of  155,166,619  acres.  Thus 
the  average  National  Forest  comprises  about  one 
million  acres  of  government  lands.  The  many 
private  holdings  scattered  through  the  Forests  make 
the  average  gross  area  of  each  Forest  much  greater. 
These  Forests  are  located  in  Alaska,  Arizona,  Ar- 
kansas, California,  Colorado,  Florida,  Idaho,  Mich- 
igan, Minnesota,  Montana,  Nebraska,  Nevada, 
New  Mexico,  North  Dakota,  Oklahoma,  Oregon, 
Porto  Rico,  South  Dakota,  Utah,  Washington,  and 
Wyoming.  Besides  these  Forests  there  have  been 
acquired  or  approved  for  purchase  under  the  Weeks 
Law  over  1,500,000  acres  in  the  States  of  Georgia, 
Maine,  New  Hampshire,  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  Tennessee,  Virginia,  and  West  Virginia. 
These  lands  are  now  under  protection  and  will 
gradually  be  consolidated  into  National  Forests. 
More  lands  are  constantly  being  acquired  in  the 
Eastern  States  in  accordance  with  the  Weeks  Law. 
Few  people  have  any  conception  of  what  a  gigan- 
tic empire  the  National  Forest  domain  is.  If  con- 
solidated^ into  one  large  compact  area,  the  155  mil- 
lion acres  of  National  Forests  would  cover  an  area 
larger  than  the  combined  areas  of  thirteen  well- 
known  Eastern  States,  viz.:  Maine,  Vermont, 


xxvi  INTRODUCTION 

New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
Rhode  Island,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Maryland,  Delaware,  Virginia,  and  West 
Virginia  (see  map).  This  area  is  also  one  fifth 
larger  than  the  entire  area  of  France.  We  marvel 
sometimes  at  the  ability  of  a  ruler  to  rule  a  country 
as  large  as  France  or  Germany;  why  should  we 
Americans  not  marvel  at  the  ability  of  the  man 
who  practically  rules  over  our  National  Forests, 
who  keeps  in  perfect  working  order  the  great  or- 
ganization which  protects  and  administrates  the 
Forests? 

The  Topography  and  Climate  of  the  National 
Forest  Region.  The  difficulty  of  the  work  of  this 
organization  is  at  once  apparent  when  we  find  that 
these  Forests  are  located  in  wild,  rugged,  moun- 
tainous country,  in  most  cases  many  miles  from  the 
railroad  and  human  habitations,  such  as  towns  and 
cities.  This  country  is  usually  far  above  sea  level 
— the  average  being  between  3,000  and  8,000  feet 
in  altitude.  But  there  are  large  areas  in  the  Na- 
tional Forests  of  Colorado  that  lie  above  10,000  feet 
elevation.  Such  country  as  this  has  a  very  severe 
climate.  The  climate  is  usually  too  cold  and  the 


INTRODUCTION  xxvii 

growing  seasons  too  short  for  the  production  of 
crops  such  as  wheat,  corn,  oats,  potatoes,  etc. 
Therefore,  practically  all  of  this  land  is  what  the 
forester  calls  "absolute  forest  land,"  that  is,  it  is 
better  adapted  for  growing  timber  crops  than  any 
other.  Another  important  fact  about  the  National 
Forests  is  that  they  are  located,  for  the  most  part, 
on  steep  mountain  slopes  and  at  the  headwaters  of 
mountain  streams.  This  makes  them  of  vital  im- 
portance in  regulating  the  stream  flow  of  our  west- 
ern rivers.  In  fact  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that 
all  our  large  western  rivers  have  their  origin  on 
National  Forest  land. 

WHY   THE  NATIONAL   FORESTS   WERE   CREATED 

Aside  from  the  great  economic  reasons  why  a 
nation  should  possess  National  Forests,  there  are 
local  reasons  which  pertain  to  the  welfare  of  the 
home  builder  and  home  industries  which  are  often 
of  paramount  importance.  The  timber,  the  water, 
the  pasture,  the  minerals,  and  all  other  resources  on 
the  government  lands  in  the  West  are  for  the  use 
of  all  the  people.  And  only  by  a  well-regulated 
policy  of  sale  or  rental  can  these  resources  be  dis- 


xxviii  INTRODUCTION 

posed  so  as  to  give  all  individuals  an  equal  oppor- 
tunity to  enjoy  them.  These  vast  resources  have 
been  estimated  to  have  a  value  of  over  $2,000,000,- 
000.  But  their  value  to  the  local  communities  can 
hardly  be  overestimated.  The  welfare  of  every 
community  is  dependent  upon  a  cheap  and  plentiful 
supply  of  timber.  If  lumber,  fence  posts,  mine 
props,  telephone  poles,  firewood,  etc.,  must  be 
brought  in  from  distant  markets,  the  prices  are 
usually  very  much  higher.  The  regulation  of  the 
cut  on  each  National  Forest  assures  a  never-failing 
supply  of  timber  to  the  home  builder  and  to  home 
industries.  Then  also  the  permanence  of  the  great 
live  stock  industry  is  dependent  upon  a  conservative 
use  of  vast  areas  of  government  range.  Local  resi- 
dents are  protected  from  unfair  competition. 
Lastly,  the  protection  by  the  Forest  Service  of  the 
forest  cover  in  the  western  mountains  assures  a 
regular  stream  flow  which  is  of  vital  importance 
for  power,  irrigation,  and  domestic  purposes. 

Perhaps  the  most  comprehensive  statement  upon 
the  purposes  of  the  National  Forests  and  the  meth- 
ods and  general  policy  of  administering  them  is  to 
be  found  in  a  letter  by  the  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture to  the  Forester,  dated  February  1,  1905,  when 


Figure  3.  The  climate  of  most  of  the  National  Forests  is  severe. 
This  view  was  taken  in  the  early  summer  and  shows  the  high  moun- 
tains still  covered  with  snow.  Most  of  the  National  Forest  lands 
are  therefore  of  small  value  for  agriculture.  Photo  by  Abbey. 

Figure  4.  On  many  high  mountains  on  the  National  Forests  snow 
banks  persist  throughout  the  summer.  This  view  was  taken  in  the 
latter  part  of  August.  Lassen  National  Forest,  California.  Photo 
by  the  author. 


INTRODUCTION  xxix 

the  Forests  were  turned  over  to  the  Department  of 
Agriculture : 

"In  the  administration  of  the  forest  reserves  it  must  be 
clearly  borne  in  mind  that  all  land  is  to  be  devoted  to  its 
most  productive  use  for  the  permanent  good  of  the  whole 
people,  and  not  for  the  temporary  benefit  of  individuals  or 
companies.  All  the  resources  of  the  forest  reserves  are  for 
use,  and  this  use  must  be  brought  about  in  a  thoroughly  prompt 
and  businesslike  manner,  under  such  restrictions  only  as  will 
insure  the  permanence  of  these  resources.  The  vital  impor- 
tance of  forest  reserves  to  the  great  industries  of  the  West- 
ern States  will  be  largely  increased  in  the  near  future  by 
the  continued  steady  advance  in  settlement  and  develop- 
ment. The  permanence  of  the  resources  of  the  reserves  is 
therefore  indispensable  to  continued  prosperity,  and  the  policy 
of  this  Department  for  their  protection  and  use  will  in- 
variably be  guided  by  this  fact,  bearing  in  mind  that  the  con- 
servative use  of  these  resources  in  no  way  conflicts  with  their 
permanent  value. 

"You  will  see  to  it  that  the  water,  wood,  and  forage  of 
the  reserves  are  conserved  and  wisely  used  for  the  benefit 
of  the  home  builder  first  of  all,  upon  whom  depends  the  best 
permanent  use  of  lands  and  resources  alike.  The  continued 
prosperity  of  the  agricultural,  lumbering,  mining,  and  live- 
stock interests  is  directly  dependent  upon  a  permanent  and 
accessible  supply  of  water,  wood,  and  forage,  as  well  as  upon 
the  present  and  future  use  of  these  resources  under  business- 
like regulations,  enforced  with  promptness,  effectiveness,  and 
common  sense.  In  the  management  of  each  reserve  local  ques- 
tions will  be  decided  upon  local  grounds;  the  dominant  in- 
dustry will  be  considered  first,  but  with  as  little  restriction 
to  minor  industries  as  may  be  possible;  sudden  changes  in  in- 


xxx  INTRODUCTION 

dustrial  conditions  will  be  avoided  by  gradual  adjustment 
after  due  notice,  and  where  conflicting  interests  must  be 
reconciled  the  question  will  always  be  decided  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  greatest  good  of  the  greatest  number  in  the  long 
run." 

HOW   THE   NATIONAL   FOREST   POLICY    HAS 
BENEFITED   THE   PEOPLE 

This  general  policy,  which  was  laid  down  by  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  has  been  followed  out, 
with  the  result  that  a  great  many  benefits  have 
been  derived  by  the  nation  as  a  whole,  by  the  in- 
dividual States  in  which  the  National  Forests  are 
located,  and,  lastly,  by  the  local  communities  and 
users  of  the  Forests. 

The  Remaining  Timber  Resources  Were  Saved. 
First  of  all  the  timber,  the  forage,  and  the  water- 
power  on  the  public  domain  has  been  reserved  for 
the  whole  people  and  not  for  a  privileged  few. 
Before  the  Forest  Reserve  policy  went  into  effect, 
the  most  valuable  timber  was  being  withdrawn  from 
government  ownership  by  the  misuse  of  the  public 
land  laws,  whose  purpose  and  intent  were  fraudu- 
lently evaded.  Many  claims  were  initiated  appar- 
ently for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  homestead 
but  in  reality  for  the  purposes  of  securing  the  tim- 


INTRODUCTION  xxxi 

ber  on  the  land  and  later  to  dispose  of  it  to  some 
large  timber  holder.  Every  citizen  is  allowed  to 
exercise  his  homestead  right.  Big  timber  operators 
would  secure  the  services  of  many  dummy  locators, 
pay  the  expenses  of  locating,  improving,  and  per- 
fecting the  patent,  and  then  buy  the  claim  from  $ 
these  dummies  for  small  sums.  A  large  timber  /T, 
holder  in  California  secured  his  hundreds  of  thou-A^  \ 
sands  of-acjcesiof  timber  land  in  this  way.^By^U? 
^'structing'  these  men  where  to  locate  their  claims  he 
was  able  to  secure  more  or  less  solid  blocks  of  timber  V 
made  up  originally  of  160  acre  patches.  These 
patches,  which  originally  were  bought  by  the  lum- 
ber barons  for  from  $500  to  $800  a  claim,  now  have 
a  value  of  from  $8,000  to  as  high  as  $20,000.  The 
people  of  the  United  States  have  lost  the  difference. 
It  is  difficult  to  say  where  or  how  this  wholesale 
misuse  of  the  public  land  laws  would  have  ended 
if  it  had  not  been  for  the  inauguration  of  the  Na- 
tional Forest  policy.  Since  the  Government  has 
taken  full  charge  of  its  forest  domain,  this  misuse 
has  stopped.  In  fact  many  of  the  fraudulent 
claims  located  years  ago  are  being  investigated,  and 
if  they  are  found  to  have  been  initiated  with  intent 
to  defraud  the  Government,  the  land  and  the  timber 


xxxii  INTRODUCTION 

is  returned  to  the  National  Forest  in  which  it  is 
located.  To-day  the  National  Forests  contain 
about  one  fifth  of  the  standing  timber  in  the  United 
States,  an  amount  which  will  undoubtedly  have  a 
great  effect  upon  the  supply  of  timber  available 
for  future  generations,  especially  since  under  pres- 
ent lumbering  methods  the  privately  owned  timber 
lands  are  being  practically  destroyed,  while  the  Na- 
tional Forests  are  actually  being  improved  by  sci- 
entific management.  Four  fifths  of  the  standing 
timber  is  privately  owned,  and  this  is  usually  of 
much  higher  quality  than  the  publicly  owned  tim- 
ber. 

The  Use  of  Forage  and  Water  Resources  Was 
Regulated.  The  forage  and  water  resources  of  the 
public  domain  have  been  subject  to  similar  abuse. 
Before  the  National  Forest  policy  was  put  into 
effect  the  large  ranges  of  the  West  were  used  indis- 
criminately by  all.  The  range  was  subject  to  con- 
siderable abuse  because  it  was  used  very  early  in 
the  spring  before  the  forage  was  mature,  or  too 
late  in  the  fall,  which  prevented  the  forage  from 
ripening  its  seed  and  reproducing  for  the  next  sea- 
son. Not  the  small,  local  stockmen,  however,  but 
the  large  sheep  and  cattle  companies,  many  con- 


Figure  5.     The  Big  Trees.    "Mother  of  the  Forest"  in  the  background. 
North  Calaveras  Grove,  California 


INTRODUCTION  xxxiii 

trolled  by  foreign  capital,  benefited  by  this  condi- 
tion of  affairs.  These  "big  men,"  as  they  were 
called,  illegally  fenced  and  monopolized  large  areas, 
varying  in  size  from  townships  to  entire  counties. 
What  chance  would  a  local  rancher  with  fifty  or 
sixty  cattle  have  against  a  million-dollar  outfit  with 
perhaps  40,000  to  50,000  cattle?  He  was  merely 
swallowed  up,  so  to  speak,  and  had  no  chance  what- 
ever to  get  his  small  share.  "Might  made  right" 
in  those  days,  and  it  is  said  that  if  a  man  held  any 
title  or  equity  on  the  range  it  was  a  "shotgun" 
title.  Also,  the  sheep  and  cattle  men  had  innu- 
merable disputes  about  the  use  of  the  range  which 
in  many  cases  resulted  in  bloodshed.  If  a  sheep 
man  arrived  first  on  the  range  in  the  spring  with 
his  large  bands  of  sheep,  he  simply  took  the  feed. 
The  Government  owned  the  land  and  the  forage 
but  it  had  no  organization  in  the  field  to  regulate 
the  use  of  it.  It  was  indeed  a  chaotic  condition 
of  affairs  and  ended  only  after  the  inauguration 
of  the  present  policy  of  leasing  the  lands  under  the 
permit  system.  These  permits  are  issued  and 
charged  for  upon  a  per  capita  basis. 

The  conservative  and  regulated  use  of  the  graz- 
ing lands  under  Forest  Service  supervision  has  re- 


xxxiv  INTRODUCTION 

suited  in  better  growth  and  better  weights  on  stock 
and  more  actual  profit.  There  are  ample  data  that 
show  that  the  National  Forests  produce  some  of 
the  best  lambs  that  are  put  upon  the  market.  Data 
secured  from  the  Modoc  National  Forest,  Cali- 
fornia, in  1910,  show  that  lambs  brought  50  cents 
per  head  more  and  weighed  an  average  of  10 
pounds  more  than  lambs  produced  outside  the  For- 
est. Weights  taken  of  10,000  head  showed  an  av- 
erage of  72  pounds  for  National  Forest  lambs, 
while  outside  the  Forest  average  weights  on  3,000 
lambs  showed  only  62  pounds.  The  regulation  of 
the  length  of  the  grazing  season,  the  introduction 
of  better  methods  of  handling  sheep,  and  the  pre- 
vention of  over-grazing  are  some  of  the  Forest 
Service  methods  that  produce  better  lambs. 

Then  also  under  the  old  system  the  valuable 
water-power  sites  were  being  rapidly  eliminated 
from  government  ownership  by  large  corporations 
who  secured  valuable  property  for  a  song.  The 
National  Forests,  however,  still  contain  about  one- 
third  of  the  potential  water-power  resources  of  the 
United  States  and  over  40  per  cent,  of  the  esti- 
mated power  resources  of  the  Western  States. 
And  this  vast  wealth  will  not  pass  from  the  owner- 


INTRODUCTION  xxxv 

ship  of  the  United  States  but  will  be  leased  under 
long-term  leases  from  which  the  Government  will 
receive  yearly  a  fair  rental. 

The  Forests  Were  Protected  from  Fire  and 
Trespass.  But  not  only  have  these  large  timber, 
forage,  and  power  resources  been  put  under  admin- 
istration for  the  use  of  the  people.  The  protection 
of  the  National  Forests,  which  goes  hand  in  hand 
with  their  administration,  means  a  great  deal  to 
the  local  communities,  the  States,  and  the  nation  as 
a  whole.  Until  about  twenty  years  ago  the  forests 
upon  our  public  lands — the  timber  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  from  Montana  to  New  Mexico  and  of 
the  Pacific  Coast  ranges  from  northern  Washing- 
ton to  southern  California — seemed  destined  to 
be  destroyed  by  fire  and  reckless,  illegal  cutting. 
Nothing  whatever  was  being  done  to  protect  them 
from  fire  or  trespass.  They  were  simply  left  to 
burn.  When  the  people  living  near  the  public  do- 
main wanted  any  house  logs,  fence  posts,  or  fire- 
wood, they  went  into  the  public  domain  and  took 
them.  The  best  trees  were  usually  taken  first.  In 
California,  especially,  there  was  a  common  practice 
of  cutting  down  the  finest  sugar  pine  trees  and 
cutting  and  splitting  them  into  shakes  to  make  a 


xxxvi  INTRODUCTION 

roof  covering.  Then,  too,  much  government  tim- 
ber was  stolen  by  lumber  companies  operating  in 
the  vicinity  of  valuable  government  timber.  After 
the  land  had  been  stripped  of  everything  of  value 
a  fire  was  started  in  the  slashing,  which  among  other 
things  burned  the  stumps  and  thus  practically  oblit- 
erated all  evidence  of  trespass.  Had  this  destruc- 
tion continued  there  would  to-day  have  been  little 
timber  left  in  the  West,  and  the  development  of 
the  country  which  demands  timber  all  the  time,  and 
not  only  at  certain  intervals,  would  have  been  re- 
tarded, if  not  stopped  altogether. 

How  terrible  the  forest  fires  were  in  this  western 
country  is  well  illustrated  by  what  an  old  California 
settler  once  told  me,  and  what  I  have  heard  re- 
peatedly in  many  Western  States.  He  said:  "In 
the  years  before  the  Forest  Service  took  over  the 
care  and  protection  of  the  forests  around  here,  the 
mountains  within  view  of  my  ranch  were  not  visible 
for  many  months  at  a  time,  being  almost  continu- 
ally enveloped  in  smoke  from  the  big  forest  fires 
that  were  raging  in  the  forests  all  summer  without 
ever  being  under  control.  They  started  in  the 
spring  as  soon  as  it  became  dry  and  were  not  sup- 
pressed until  the  late  fall  rains  and  snows  put  them 


*'>/>'* 


Figure  6.     A   scene  on  one  of  the   famous  National   Parks.     Upper 
Lake,  Glacier  National  Park,  Northern  Rockies,  Montana 


INTRODUCTION  xxxvii 

out."  But  he  added  with  great  enthusiasm,  "Since 
the  Service  has  taken  charge  the  sky  around  here 
is  as  clear  as  crystal  all  summer.  I  never  see  any 
forest  fires,  not  even  smoke,  because  the  Rangers 
seem  to  get  to  them  before  they  get  to  be  of  any 
size."  Such  testimony  as  this  speaks  volumes  for 
the  efficiency  of  the  present  system  of  protecting 
the  Forests  from  fire. 

The  Watershed  Cover  Was  Preserved.  The  de- 
struction of  the  forest  cover  on  the  watersheds 
feeding  thousands  of  streams  which  rise  in  the 
western  mountains  would  have  had  its  bad  effect 
on  stream  flow — low  water  during  the  long  dry 
periods,  and  destructive  floods  after  heavy  rains. 
This  condition  of  affairs  would  have  meant  disas- 
ter to  the  systems  of  irrigation  by  which  most  of 
the  western  farmers  raise  their  crops.  It  ^yould 
also  have  seriously  impeded  and  in  many  cases 
prevented  electric  power  development,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  affecting  the  domestic  water  of  many  of  our 
large  western  cities  whose  drinking  water  comes 
from  the  streams  rising  in  the  National  For- 
ests. The  protection  of  these  valuable  watersheds 
by  the  Forest  Service  from  fire  and  destructive 
lumbering  is  of  such  vital  importance  to  the  wel- 


xxxviii  INTRODUCTION 

fare  of  the  nation  that  it  has  been  made  one  of  the 
main  reasons  for  establishing  National  Forests. 

Civilization  Brought  to  the  Mountains.  What 
the  National  Forest  movement  has  done  for  settling 
and  building  up  the  Western  States  can  hardly  be 
overestimated.  It  has  brought  civilization  into  the 
wilderness.  Roads,  trails,  telephone  lines,  and 
other  modern  conveniences  have  been  brought  to 
remote  corners  of  the  mountains.  It  has  encour- 
aged the  settlement  of  the  country  by  calling  atten- 
tion to  the  agricultural  lands  within  the  National 
Forests.  More  important  than  that,  it  has  assured 
the  West  permanent  towns,  permanent  civilization, 
and  not  a  temporary,  careless,  shiftless  civilization 
which  vanishes  with  the  exploitation  of  resources, 
as  it  did  under  the  old  regime. 

The  improvements  on  the  National  Forests  have 
benefited  not  only  the  Forest  officers  for  the  admin- 
istration of  the  Forests.  They  have  helped  im- 
mensely the  local  population.  The  pleasure  resorts 
as  well  as  the  business  of  the  Forests  have  been 
made  more  accessible.  New  trails  have  opened  up 
new  and  hitherto  inaccessible  country,  where  fishing, 
hunting,  and  trapping  are  ideal.  All  the  old  and 
new  roads  and  trails  have  been  well  marked  with 


INTRODUCTION  xxxix 

sign  boards  giving  the  tourist  detailed  information 
about  distances  between  the  various  points  of  inter- 
est. Roads  have  opened  up  new  regions  to  auto- 
mobiles and  to  the  horse  and  wagon.  In  1916  it 
was  estimated  that  more  than  2,000,000  people  vis- 
ited the  National  Forests  for  recreation  and  pleas- 
ure. They  came  in  automobiles,  in  horse  and 
wagon,  on  horseback,  on  mules,  on  burros,  and  in  all 
sorts  of  made-to-order  contrivances,  and  the  writer 
has  even  seen  those  that  could  not  afford  anything 
better,  pack  their  camp  outfits  in  a  wheelbarrow  and 
push  it  before  them  in  their  effort  to  leave  the  hot, 
dusty  valleys  below,  and  go  to  the  refreshing  and  in- 
vigorating Forests  of  Uncle  Sam.  In  addition  to 
the  large  numbers  of  tourists  that  visit  the  National 
Forests  every  year,  over  100,000  persons  or  com- 
panies use  the  National  Forests.  Of  these  a  little 
more  than  half  are  paid  users,  who  are  charged  a 
fair  fee  for  timber,  grazing,  or  other  privileges  and 
a  little  less  than  half  enjoy  free  use  privileges. 

Agricultural  Lands  Opened  to  Settlement.  The 
settlement  of  the  agricultural  lands  in  the  National 
Forests  is  a  matter  that  has  received  special  atten- 
tion at  the  hands  of  the  Forest  Service  in  late  years. 
Land  more  valuable  for  agriculture  than  for  timber 


xl  INTRODUCTION 

growing  was  excluded  from  the  National  Forests 
before  the  boundaries  were  drawn,  so  far  as  this 
was  possible.  Small  tracts  of  agricultural  land 
within  the  Forests  which  could  not  be  excluded  are 
opened  to  settlement  under  the  Forest  Homestead 
Act  of  June  11,  1906.  The  amount  of  land,  how- 
ever, that  is  more  valuable  for  agriculture  than  for 
timber  is  trifling,  because  the  greater  part  of  the 
valuable  land  was  already  settled  before  the  Forests 
were  created.  The  few  small  patches  that  are  left 
inside  of  the  National  Forest  boundaries  are  rap- 
idly being  classified  and  opened  to  entry  for  home- 
steads. Much  of  the  land  apparently  adapted  for 
agricultural  purposes  has  a  severe  climate  because 
it  lies  at  high  altitudes  and  it  is  often  remote  from 
roads,  schools,  villages,  and  markets.  Therefore 
the  chance  offered  the  prospective  settler  in  the 
immediate'vicinity  of  the  Forests  is  far  better  than 
in  the  Forests  themselves.  The  Forest  Service  is 
doing  everything  it  can  to  encourage  homesteaders 
on  the  National  Forests ;  it  wants  them  because  they 
help  to  report  fires,  help  to  fight  fires,  and  in  many 
other  ways  assist  the  Forest  officers. 

Permanent  and  Not  Temporary  Civilization  Re- 
sulted.    Only  those  people  who  have  been  brought 


INTRODUCTION  xli 

up  near  a  large  lumbering  center  can  appreciate 
what  it  means  when  a  town  vanishes ;  when  all  that 
is  left  of  a  thriving  town  of  5,000  or  more  souls  is 
empty  streets,  empty  houses,  and  heaps  of  tin  cans. 
In  the  days  of  the  Golden  Age  of  lumbering  in 
Michigan  many  towns  flourished  in  the  midst  of  the 
forests.  These  towns  had  thrifty,,  busy  people, 
with  schools,  churches,  banks,  and  other  conven- 
iences. These  people  were  engaged  in  exploiting 
the  forests.  The  beautiful  white  pine  forests  were 
converted  into  boards  at  the  rate  of  thousands  of 
feet  every  day.  When  these  magnificent  forests 
were  laid  low,  the  lumbermen  left  to  seek  virgin 
timber  elsewhere.  They  left  behind  them  empty 
towns  and  barren  lands ;  only  a  few  charred  stumps 
remained  to  show  where  the  forests  once  stood. 
But  this  is  not  an  incident  peculiar  to  the  Golden 
Age  of  lumbering  in  Michigan.  Even  to-day  this 
very  thing  is  happening.  The  town  of  Crossfork, 
Potter  County,  Pennsylvania,  had  a  population  of 
over  2,500  souls  in  1909.  When  the  near-by  timber 
was  exhausted,  practically  the  whole  town  was 
abandoned.  In  1913  it  had  a  population  of  50. 
.  In  direct  contrast  to  this  short-sighted  policy  of 
the  State  of  Michigan  (and  many  others  also)  is 


xlii  INTRODUCTION 

the  National  Forest  policy,  which  provides  for  a 
future  supply  of  forest  products  as  well  as  a  present 
supply;  which  provides  for  work  and  homes  and 
schools  and  churches  for  future  generations  as  well 
as  for  the  present ;  which  provides  for  a  permanent 
industry  and  not  one  that  vanishes  with  the  ex- 
ploitation of  the  resources  of  a  region  as  snow  van- 
ishes under  the  warm  rays  of  a  spring  day.  Lum- 
bering even  to-day  is  merely  the  removal  of  every 
vestige  of  timber  that  has  any  sale  value.  But  for- 
estry, which  is  practiced  on  the  National  Forests, 
removes  only  the  mature  trees,  leaving  the  young 
growth  to  be  cut  at  some  future  time.  Lumbering 
has  been  and  is  to-day  forest  destruction;  forestry 
is  forest  conservation  under  a  system  of  wise  use. 
Lumbering  is  followed  usually  by  fire,  and  often 
by  an  entire  impoverishment  of  the  region  in  which 
it  is  carried  on  because  it  destroys  both  the  mature 
tree  and  the  young  growth ;  under  a  system  of  for- 
estry, cutting  is  followed  by  young,  green  forests 
which  are  protected  from  fire  for  the  benefit  of 
future  generations.  Such  a  system  leaves  the  re- 
gion and  the  industry  in  a  permanent,  good  condi- 
tion. The  county  under  the  old  system  receives  no 
more  taxes  after  its  wealth  is  gone ;  but  each  county 


Figure  7.  The  remains  of  the  old  boiler  house.  The  town  once  had 
a  sawmill,  planing  mill,  lath  mill,  besides  modern  conveniences.  All 
these  are  now  gone  after  the  forests  have  been  cut.  Lemiston,  Mont- 
morency  County,  Michigan. 

Figure  8.  Deserted  houses,  abandoned  after  the  sawmill  left. 
These  are  the  remains  of  what  was  once  a  prosperous  town.  Lemis- 
ton, Montmorency  County,  Michigan. 


INTRODUCTION  xliii 

will  receive  taxes  or  money  in  lieu  of  taxes  every 
year  as  long  as  the  National  Forests  shall  endure. 

Financial  Returns.  All  the  benefits  of  which 
I  have  spoken  are  without  doubt  great  assets  to 
the  local  community,  to  the  State,  and  to  the  nation 
as  a  whole.  They  are  great  contributions  to  the 
welfare  of  our  country  even  though  they  cannot  be 
measured  in  dollars  and  cents.  This  brings  us  then 
to  the  financial  aspect  of  the  National  Forest  move- 
ment. Even  though  the  fundamental  purpose  of 
the  National  Forests  was  in  no  sense  a  financial  one, 
it  is  interesting  to  look  into  the  finances  of  this  great 
forestry  enterprise. 

The  total  regular  appropriation  for  salaries,  gen- 
eral expenses,  and  improvements  for  the  fiscal  year 
1918  is  $5,712,275.  For  1917  it  was  slightly  less 
than  this:  $5,574,735.  The  receipts  from  the  sale 
or  rental  of  National  Forest  resources  in  the  fiscal 
year  1917  reached  $3,457,028.41.  From  these  fig- 
ures it  will  be  seen  that  the  expenditures  exceed  the 
receipts  by  between  $2,000,000  and  $3,000,000  a 
year,  depending  partly  on  the  severity  of  the  fire 
season  and  partly  on  the  activity  of  the  general 
lumber  market.  When  we  consider  that  this  is 
really  a  newly  established  business  scarcely  twenty 


xliv  INTRODUCTION 

years  old;  that  large  expenditures  have  been  made 
and  must  necessarily  be  made  every  year  for  equip- 
ment and  improvements  before  the  resources  could 
even  be  used ;  and  that  an  efficient  organization  had 
to  be  built  up  to  handle  the  business,  we  must  con- 
fess that  the  receipts  are  really  a  wonderful  show- 
ing. 

When  the  Forest  Reserves  were  taken  over  by 
the  Government  it  could  not  be  expected  that  they 
would  yield  a  revenue  at  the  very  outset,  nor  could 
it  be  expected  that  even  in  the  long  space  of  twenty- 
five  years  they  could  be  made  self-supporting. 
The  reasons  for  this  are  many.  They  are  located 
for  the  most  part  in  rugged,  inaccessible  mountains. 
In  the  case  of  almost  every  Forest  a  great  deal  of 
money  had  to  be  expended  for  roads,  trails,  tele- 
phone lines,  fences,  bridges,  ranger  stations  and 
other  cabins,  lookout  structures,  fire  lines,  and 
many  other  improvements  before  the  resources 
could  even  be  used.  Many  of  the  resources  were 
practically  locked  up ;  there  were  no  roads  by  which 
to  get  them  out  of  the  wilderness.  During  the  fis- 
cal year  1916  alone  there  were  built  227  miles  of 
roads,  1,975  miles  of  trails,  2,124  miles  of  telephone 
lines,  89  miles  of  fire  lines,  81  lookout  structures,  40 


INTRODUCTION  xlv 

bridges,  222  miles  of  fences,  545  dwellings,  barns, 
and  other  structures,  and  many  other  improve- 
ments. Up  to  date  there  have  been  constructed 
over  3,000  miles  of  roads,  over  25,000  miles  of  trails, 
about  23,000  miles  of  telephone  lines,  860  miles  of 
firebreaks,  about  360  forest  fire  lookout  cabins  and 
towers,  and  many  other  improvements.  Their  to- 
tal value  is  estimated  at  $7,000,000.  And  these 
vast  improvements  are  but  a  small  percentage  of 
the  improvements  which  will  be  necessary  to  be 
able  to  put  these  Forests  to  their  highest  use. 

Not  only  must  enormous  sums  be  spent  for  im- 
provements. The  huge  sums  which  are  spent  for 
the  protection  of  the  great  resources  bring  no  tangi- 
ble return  in  dollars  and  cents ;  yet  the  fire  protec- 
tion system  prevents  the  destruction  of  millions  of 
dollars'  worth  of  timber  every  year.  Then  again, 
when  government  timber  lands  are  cut  over,  only 
the  mature  trees  are  taken;  the  smaller  trees,  al- 
though, they  have  a  commercial  value,  are  left  on 
the  ground  to  mature  because  they  will  have  a  still 
greater  value  in  from  forty  to  fifty  years.  This  is 
merely  foregoing  a  small  present  revenue  for  a 
larger  future  one.  Also  many  National  Forests 
have  on  them  large  areas  of  steep  mountain  slopes 


xlvi  INTRODUCTION 

where  not  a  stick  of  timber  is  allowed  to  be  cut. 
These  areas  are  maintained  intact  for  watershed 
protection.  In  fact  many  of  the  Forests  of  south- 
ern California  are  maintained  solely  for  this  pur- 
pose. These  Forests  are  covered  almost  entirely 
by  a  low  bush-like  growth  called  "chaparral,"  which 
has  no  value  either  as  timber  or  as  browse,  but  which 
has  great  value  to  preserve  an  equable  stream  flow 
for  domestic  use,  irrigation,  and  water  power. 

But  there  are  still  other  reasons  why  the  cash 
receipts  from  the  National  Forests  are  not  as  large 
as  they  might  be.  In  addition  to  the  cash  receipts 
the  equivalent  of  a  large  revenue  is  foregone  every 
year  through  the  various  forms  of  free  use  and  the 
sale  of  timber  to  settlers  at  cost  instead  of  at  its 
actual  cash  value.  During  the  fiscal  year  1917  ap- 
proximately $150,000  worth  of  timber  was  given  to 
settlers  free  of  cost.  About  40,000  people  were 
served  under  this  policy.  Also  much  timber  is  sold 
at  cost  to  settlers  for  domestic  use.  In  this  way 
over  4,400  persons  received  many  millions  of  feet  of 
timber  whose  cost  value  was  about  $20,000,  but 
whose  sale  value  was  much  greater.  The  privilege 
of  grazing  a  small  number  of  stock  free  of  charge 
is  granted  to  settlers  living  on  or  near  the  Forests. 


INTRODUCTION  xlvii 

The  stock  thus  grazed  amounts  to  about  125,000 
animals  every  year.  The  Forests  are  also  put  to 
many  special  uses  for  which  no  charge  is  made  al- 
though their  administration  involves  some  expense. 
Strict  accounting  should  credit  the  fair  value  of 
such  uses  to  the  receipts  from  the  National  For- 
ests, for  it  is  in  effect  income  which  instead  of  being 
put  into  the  treasury  is  made  available  for  the 
benefit  of  the  people. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  seen  that  a 
large  part  of  the  benefits  derived  from  the  system- 
atic administration  of  the  National  Forests  cannot 
be  measured  in  dollars  and  cents.  These  benefits 
are  in  effect  privileges  extended  to  the  people  who 
in  return  assist  in  the  protection  of  the  Forests  from 
fire  and  thus  more  than  repay  the  Government  for 
what  they  receive.  Even  under  the  rather  unfa- 
vorable revenue  producing  conditions  mentioned 
above,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  1917  the  re- 
ceipts of  thirty -two  National  Forests  exceeded  their 
total  expenditures.  On  fifteen  others  the  receipts 
exceeded  the  cost  of  protection  and  administration. 
In  other  words,  one-third  of  the  National  Forests 
are  practically  self-supporting.  ^ 

The  New  Eastern  National  Forests.     The  great 


xlviii  INTRODUCTION 

success  with  which  the  National  Forest  policy  was 
launched  in  the  Western  States  was  largely  re- 
sponsible for  the  inauguration  of  a  similar  policy 
in  the  Appalachian  and  White  Mountains.  The 
main  purpose  for  which  these  forests  are  to  be  ac- 
quired is  to  preserve  a  steady  stream  flow  for  water- 
power,  navigation,  and  domestic  use,  and  to  lessen 
the  dahiage  caused  by  floods  and  erosion.  These 
forests  are  of  vital  influence  in  controlling  the  flow 
of  the  Merrimac,  Connecticut,  Androscoggin,  Poto- 
mac, James,  Santee,  Savannah,  Tennessee,  and 
Monongahela  rivers.  Some  years  ago  the  Merri- 
mac drove  mills  worth  over  $100,000,000,  which 
employed  over  80,000  people.  Upon  these,  it  is 
said,  350,000  were  dependent  for  support.  In  the 
Carolinas  and  Georgia  alone  the  cotton  mills  oper- 
ated by  water-power  turn  out  an  annual  product 
valued  at  almost  $100,000,000.  In  these  mills 
60,000  people  are  employed,  upon  whom  250,000 
are  dependent  for  support.  These  mills  utilize 
106,000  horse-power.  The  forests  which  control 
these  waters  are  therefore  of  great  pecuniary  value. 
The  Act  of  March  1,  1911,  commonly  known  as 
the  Weeks  Law,  made  the  acquisition  of  forest 
lands  in  the  Appalachian  and  White  Mountains 


INTRODUCTION  xlix 

possible.  Up  to  June  30,  1917,  over  1,500,000 
acres  have  been  approved  for  purchase  by  the  Na- 
tional Forest  Reservation  Commission.  The  For- 
est Service  has  been  designated  as  the  bureau  to 
examine  and  value  such  lands  as  may  be  offered 
for  purchase.  The  original  appropriation  was 
$2,000,000  per  year  for  five  and  one-half  years,  be- 
ginning the  last  half  of  the  fiscal  year  1911.  The 
Agricultural  Appropriation  Bill  for  the  fiscal  year 
1913  made  the  appropriation  for  1912  and  subse- 
quent years  available  until  expended.  A  further 
appropriation  of  $3,000,000  was  provided  later  for 
the  same  purpose,  to  be  expended  during  the  fiscal 
years  1917  and  1918.  Under  Section  2  of  the  same 
law  cooperative  fire  protection  with  the  States  was 
provided  for.  This  section  of  the  law  provided  that 
the  Forest  Service  should  maintain  a  cooperative 
system  of  forest  fire  protection  with  those  States 
which  have  a  law  providing  for  a  system  of  fire 
protection  for  state  and  private  forest  lands  upon 
the  watersheds  of  navigable  streams.  In  no  case 
was  the  amount  to  be  expended  by  the  Forest 
Service  to  exceed  the  amount  appropriated  by  the 
State  for  the  same  purpose  in  any  given  fiscal  year. 
The  original  appropriation  was  $200,000  and  sub- 


1  INTRODUCTION 

sequent  appropriations  have  been  for  $100,000  an- 
nually. Twenty-one  States  are  cooperating  with 
the  Forest  Service  in  this  way. 

By  the  passage  of  the  Weeks  Bill,  Congress  has 
voiced  the  sentiment  that  the  forest  fire  problem, 
even  on  private  land,  is  not  only  no  longer  a  private 
problem,  is  not  even  exclusively  a  state  problem, 
but  a  joint  problem  and  duty  to  be  borne  by  the 
State  and  nation.  Forest  fires  are  now  rightfully 
looked  upon  as  a  public  enemy  rather  than  a  pri- 
vate menace.  This  is  a  big  step  in  the  right  di- 
rection, and  it  is  hoped  that  this  same  principle 
will  be  applied  in  the  not  too  distant  future  to  all 
other  matters  dealing  with  private  timber  lands. 
If  the  protection  of  these  private  timber  lands  is  a 
public  and  not  a  private  problem,  then  certainly 
their  management  for  continuity  is  a  public  prob- 
lem. A  timber  owner  should  not  be  allowed  to  cut 
his  timber  without  the  consent  of  the  Government, 
and  the  Government  should  see  to  it  that  he  leaves 
the  young  growth  as  a  basis  for  a  future  erop  or 
provides  a  new  growth  of  timber  by  planting  young 
trees. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

PREFACE vii 

INTRODUCTION xiii 

Forestry  as  a  National  Problem xiii 

Our  consumption  of  wood xiii 

The  lumber  industry xiv 

Our  future  lumber  supply xv 

Forests  and  stream  flow xvi 

Forests  and  erosion xvii 

Forestry  a  public  enterprise xviii 

^~> The  Extent  and  Character  of  Our  National  For- 
ests       ....           xix 

How  the  Government  obtained  the  National 

Forest  lands xix 

The  romance  of  the  National  Forest  region  .  xx 

Famous  scenic  wonders  near  the  Forests  .      .  xxii 

The  size  and  extent  of  the  National  Forests  .  xxiv 
The  topography  and  climate  of  the  National 

Forest  region xxvi 

Why  the  National  Forests  were  Created      .      .  xxvii 
How  the  National  Forest  Policy  has  Benefited 

the  People xxx 

The  remaining  timber  resources  were  saved  .  xxx 
The  use  of  forage  and  water  resources  was 

regulated xxxii 

The  Forests  were  protected  from  fire  and 

trespass xxxv 

The  watershed  cover  was  preserved  .      .      .  xxxvii 
Civilization  brought  to  the  mountains       .       .  xxxviii 
Agricultural  lands  opened  to  settlement  .      .  xxxix 
Permanent  and  not  temporary  civilization  re- 
sulted          xl 

Financial  returns xliii 

The  new  eastern  National  Forests      .      .     ,.,  xlvii 
liii 


liv  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

I     THE  CREATION  AND  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  NATIONAL, 

FORESTS 1 

Economic  Conditions  Which  Led  to  Forest  Con- 
servation          1 

Prodigality  leads  finally  to  conservation       .      .  1 

The  march  of  forest  destruction 2 

Our  lumber  and  water  supply  imperiled  ...  5 

The  First  Steps  in  Federal  Forest  Conservation    .  6 

The  upbuilding  of  the  West  .      .  " .      .      .      /  6 

The  Lake  States  first  to  act  .    /'.  "  ?  ' •  *      .      .  •'  '7 

The  first  federal  steps 8 

The  Act  of  August  16,  1876 9 

Further  work  under  the  Act 11 

The  First  Forest  Reserves  Established  March  30, 

1891 12 

The  situation  before  1891 12 

-^.  The  need  of  the  forest  policy 13 

The  Act  of  March  3,  1891 14 

An  Anomalous  Condition — Forest  Reserves  With- 
out Forest  Administration 14 

The  Need  of  Administration  on  the  Reserves     .  14 

More  Reserves  created 16 

The  Administration   of   the   Reserves   Under  the 

General  Land  Office 16 

The  Act  of  June  4,  1897 16 

The  Division  of  Forestry  in  1898      .      .      .      .  18 

The  Bureau  of  Forestry 19 

The  Consolidation  of  the  Forestry  Work  in  the 

Department  of  Agriculture  in  1905     .      .       .19 

The  Act  of  February  1,  1905 19 

Early  forestry  education  and  literature  ...  20 

Changes  in  the  Forest  Service  personnel     .      .  21 

More  National  Forests  created     .      .      .      .      .  21] 

The  growth  of  the  Forest  Service     ....  22 

Recent  modifications  in  the  organization  ...  23 

The  Present  Organization  of  the  Forest  Service     .  24 

The  administrative  districts 24 

The  Washington  office 26 

The  district  offices  28 


CONTENTS  Iv 

PAGE 

II     THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  NATIONAL  FORESTS     .  30 

Personnel 31 

Duties  of  forest  officers 31 

The  Forest  Supervisor     .......  32 

The    Forest    Assistant .  34 

The  Forest  Ranger 35 

The  Forest  Clerk 38 

Forest  Service  Meetings 39 

How  the  Forest  Service  Appropriation  is  Allotted 

to  the  National  Forests 40 

Forest  Service  expenses 40 

The  agricultural  appropriation  bill  ....  42 

The  ranger's  protection  and  improvement  plans  42 

The  Supervisor's  plans 43 

Approval  of  plans  by  the  District  Forester  .      .  44 

The  district  fiscal  agent 45 

Tax  money  paid  to  the  states 46 

The   Equipment   and   Supplies   for   the   National 

Forests           47 

The  property  auditor  and  property  clerk     .      .  47 

Blank  forms 48 

Supplies 48 

National  Forest  Improvements 49 

"-*  The  need  of  improvements 49 

Transportation  facilities 50 

Communication  facilities 53 

•"-—  Grazing  improvements 56 

Protection  improvements 57 

Appropriations  for  improvement  work    .      .      .58 

The  Classification  and  Consolidation  of  National 

Forest  Lands 61 

Land  classification 61 

The  consolidation  of  National  Forest  lands      .  63 

How  Young  Forests  are  Planted  to  Replace  Those 

Destroyed  by  Fire  .      .      .      .      .      .      .      .64 

Reforestation  and  the  timber  supply     ...  64 

Reforestation  and  water  supply        ....  65 

Government  reforestation  policy 67 

Methods  of  reforestation 70 


Ivi  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Direct  seeding  work  on  the  National  Forests     .  72 

Planting  on  the  National  Forests      ....  78 

The  Organization  and   Scope   of  Forest  Experi- 
ments and  Investigations     .......  83 

The  need  of  scientific  experiments     ....  83 

The  science  of  growing  timber   .      .  .84 

Dendrological   studies -86 

Seed  studies .  87 

Nursery  studies 88 

Forestation  experiments 89 

Studies  of  forest  influences 89 

Meteorological  observations 91 

Forest  management  studies 92 

Forest  protection  studies 94 

^  Protection  from  grazing  damage 95 

Protection  from  insects  and  diseases     ...  96 

Tree  studies 97 

"*"  Grazing  investigations 98 

Investigations  dealing  with  poisonous  plants  and 

predatory  animals 102 

National  Forest  utilization  experiments  .      .      .104 
Forest  Products  Laboratory  experiments      .      .108 

Industrial  investigations 116 

III     THE  PROTECTION  OF  THE  NATIONAL  FORESTS     .      .    120 

Protection  from  Fire 120 

Forest  Fire  danger  on  the  National  Forests     .    120 
Importance  of  fire  protection   .       .       .      .  .121 

Causes  of  forest  fires  on  the  National  Forests  .    124 

Behavior  of  forest  fires 126 

Losses  by  forest  fires  on  the  National  Forests  126 

The  forest  fire  problem  stated 128 

Fire  prevention .129 

Fire   suppression 133 

How  forest  fire  funds  are  distributed     .      .      .134 

Forest   fire   history 136 

Relation  of  forest  fires  to  the  weather     .      .      .137 
Improvements  and  equipment  for  protection     .    138 

Forest  fire  maps  and  charts 139 

Forest  fire  organization 140 


CONTENTS  Ivii 

PAGE 

How  fires  are  located 142 

The  fire  fighting  organization 144 

Forest  fire   cooperation 146 

Fighting  forest  fires 147 

Protection     Against     Trespass,     Forest     Insects, 

Erosion,  and  Other  Agencies 150 

Trespass 150 

Forest  insects 154 

Tree  diseases 159 

Water  supply 162 

Public  health 167 

Violation  of  game  laws 168 

IV     THE  SALE  AND  RENTAL  OF  NATIONAL  FOREST  RE- 
SOURCES     170 

The  Sale  and  Disposal  of  National  Forest  Timber  170 

Government  Timber  Sale  Policy 171 

Annual  yield  and  cut 172 

Timber   reconnoissance 174 

Logging  the  timber 176 

The  first  step  in  purchasing  government  timber  180 

Procedure  in  an  advertised  sale 180 

Timber  sale  contract  clauses 182 

Special  contract  clauses 184 

When  the  operation  may  begin 186 

Marking  the  timber  for  cutting 186 

Scaling,  measuring,  and  stamping     .      .      .      .188 

Disposal  of  slash 190 

Payment  for  timber 192 

Stumpage  rates 193 

Cutting  period 194 

Readjustment  of  Stumpage  rates      .      .      .      .194 
Refunds 194 

The  Disposal  of  timber  to  Homestead  Settlers  and 

Under   Free  Use 195 

Sales  to  homestead  settlers  and  farmers  .      .      .195 
Free  Use 195 

Timber  Settlement  and  Administrative  Use      .       .198 

The  Rental  of  National  Forest  Range  Lands  .      .    200 


Iviii  CONTENTS 

\^  PAGE 

.      Importance  of  the  live-stock  industry     .      .      .  200 

^  Permits  issued  in  1917 201 

^  Kinds  of  range,  grazing  seasons,  and  methods 

handling  stock 202 

x  Grazing  districts  and  grazing  units  ....  205 

\  Who  are  entitled  to  grazing  privileges     .      .      .  207 

\  Grazing  permits 211 

.,       Grazing  fees 214 

Stock  associations 215 

^     Protective  and  maximum  limits 216 

Prohibition  of  grazing 218 

x  Protection  of  grazing  interests 219 

Special  Uses 220 

Claims  and  Settlement 223 

The  National  Forest  Homestead  Act       .      .      .  224. 

The  mining  laws    .             229 

Coal-land    laws 230 

Administrative  Use  of  National  Forest  Lands      .  230 
Water  Power,  Telephone,  Telegraph,  and  Power 

Transmission   Lines 230 

APPENDIX .  233 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Figure  1.  An  observation  point  for  finding  forest  fires. 
Vigilance  is  the  watchword  on  the  National 
Forests.  During  1916  forest  officers  extin- 
guished 5,655  forest  fires.  Photo  by  the  au- 
thor   Frontispiece 

FACING 
P4QB 

Figure  2.  A  typical  National  Forest  landscape  in  the 
high  mountains.  Potosi  Peak,  13,763  feet, 
from  Yankee  Boy  Basin,  Uncompahgre  Na- 
tional Forest,  Ouray  County,  Colorado  .  .  xviii 

Figure  3.  The  climate  of  most  of  the  National  Forests 
is  severe.  This  view  was  taken  in  the  early 
summer  and  shows  the  high  mountains  still 
covered  with  snow.  Most  of  the  National 
Forest  lands  are  therefore  of  small  value  for 
agriculture.  Photo  by  Abbey  ....  xxviii 

Figure  4.  On  many  high  mountains  on  the  National 
Forests  snow  banks  persist  throughout  the 
summer.  This  view  was  taken  in  the  latter 
part  of  August.  Lassen  National  Forest, 
California.  Photo  by  the  author  .  .  .  xxviii 

Figure  5.  The  Big  Trees.  "Mother  of  the  Forest"  in 
the  background.  North  Calaveras  Grove, 
California xxxii 

Figure  6.  A  scene  on  one  of  the  famous  National 
Parks.  Upper  Lake,  Glacier  National  Park, 
Northern  Rockies,  Montana xxxvi 

Figure     7.  The  remains  of  the  old  boiler  house.     The 
town  once  had  a  sawmill,  planing  mill,  lath 
mill,  besides  modern  conveniences.     All  these 
lix 


Ix  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PACING 
PACKED 

are  now  gone  after  the  forests  have  been  cut. 
Lemiston,  Montmorency  County,  Michigan  .      xlii 

Figure  8.  Deserted  houses,  abandoned  after  the  saw- 
mill left.  These  are  the  remains  of  what 
was  once  a  prosperous  town.  Lemiston, 
Montmorency  County,  Michigan  ....  xlii 

Figure  9.  Forest  officers  in  front  of  the  Forest  Super- 
visor's summer  headquarters.  Note  the 
many  telephone  wires  that  lead  from  the  of- 
fice. This  is  50  miles  from  the  railroad. 
Lassen  National  Forest,  California  .  .  .  32 

Figure  10.  Scene  in  front  of  the  Forest  Supervisor's 
headquarters.  Sheep  leaving  the  National 
Forest  summer  range  in  the  fall  to  go  to  win- 
ter range  in  the  valley.  Lassen  National 
Forest,  California 32 

Figure  11.  Forest  officers  and  lumberjacks  burning  the 
slash  resulting  from  a  timber  sale.  The 
snow  on  the  ground  makes  the  burning  less 
dangerous.  Washakie  National  Forest,  Wy- 
oming. Photo  by  the  author 38 

Figure  12.  Forest  officers  at  a  winter  timber-cruising 
camp  repairing  snow  shoes.  Besides  cruis- 
ing the  timber,  these  men  make  a  logging 
map  of  the  government  lands,  to  show  how 
the  timber  can  best  be  taken  out.  Lassen 
National  Forest,  California.  Photo  by  the 
author 38 

Figure  13.  A  forest  fire  lookout  tower  on  Leek  Springs 
Mountain,  Eldorado  National  Forest,  Cali- 
fornia    50 

Figure  14.  A  typical  Forest  Ranger's  headquarters. 
Idlewood  Ranger  Station,  Arapaho  National 
Forest,  Colorado 52 


ILLUSTRATIONS  Ixi 

FACING 
PAGE 

Figure  15.  A  typical  view  of  the  National  Forest  coun- 
try in  Montana.  Forest  Service  trail  up 
Squaw  Peak  Patrol  Station,  Cabinet  National 
Forest 54t 

Figure  16.  Forest  Rangers  repairing  a  bridge  over  a 
mountain  stream.  Arapaho  National  For- 
est, Colorado 56 

Figure  17.  A  forest  fire  lookout  station  on  the  top  of 
Lassen  Peak,  elevation  10,400  feet,  Lassen 
National  Forest,  California.  The  cabin  was 
first  erected  complete  in  a  carpenter's  shop 
in  Red  Bluff,  about  50  miles  away.  It  was 
then  taken  to  pieces  and  packed  to  the  foot 
of  Lassen  Peak.  On  the  last  two  miles  of 
its  journey  it  was  packed  piece  by  piece  on 
forest  officers'  backs  and  finally  reassembled 
on  the  topmost  pinnacle  of  the  mountain. 
Photo  by  the  author 58 

Figure  18.  Forest  officers  and  laborers  building  a  wagon 
road  through  trap  rock.  Payette  National 
Forest,  Idaho  .  .  .  '..,..  .  .  "  *  .  58 

Figure  19.  Drying  pine  cones  preparatory  to  extracting 
the  seed.  Near  Plumas  National  Forest, 
California  . 66 

Figure  20.  Extracting  tree  seed  from  the  cones.  The 
dried  cones  are  shaken  around  until  the  seeds 
drop  out  through  the  wire  mesh  which  forms 
the  sides  of  the  machine 66 

Figure  21.  Preparing  the  ground  with  a  spring-tooth 
harrow  for  the  broadcast  sowing  of  tree 
seeds.  Battlement  National  Forest,  Colo- 
rado. This  view  was  taken  at  approximately 
10,000  feet  elevation.  Photo  by  the  author  70 

Figure  22.  A  local  settler  delivering  a  load  of  Lodge- 
pole  pine  cones  at  the  seed  extractory,  for 


Ixii  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PACING 

PAGE 


which  he  receives  45  cents  per  bushel.  For- 
est officers  receiving  them,  Arapaho  National 
Forest,  Colorado 70 

Figure  23.  In  a  forest  nursery  a  trough  is  often  used  for 
sowing  seeds  in  drills.  The  seed  scattered 
along  the  sides  of  the  trough  rattles  into  po- 
sition at  the  bottom  and  is  more  even  than 
when  distributed  by  the  ordinary  worker  at 
the  bottom  of  the  trough.  Pike  National 
Forest,  Colorado 72 

Figure  24.  Uncle  Sam  grows  the  little  trees  by  the  mil- 
lions. These  will  soon  cover  some  of  the 
bare  hillsides  on  the  National  Forests  of  the 
West 72 

Figure  25.  One  of  the  largest  Forest  Service  nurseries 
where  the  young  trees  are  given  the  utmost 
care  before  they  are  large  and  strong  enough 
to  endure  the  rigorous  climate  of  the  National 
Forests.  McCloud  Nursery,  Shasta  Na- 
tional Forest,  California 76 

Figure  26.  A  view  of  seed  sowing  with  a  corn  planter. 

San  Isabel  National  Forest,  Colorado      .       .        78 

Figure  27.  Sowing    seed    along    contour    lines    on    the 

slopes.     Pike  National  Forest,  Colorado       .        78 

Figure  28.  A  planting  crew  at  work  setting  out  small 
trees.  The  man  ahead  digs  the  hole,  and  the 
man  behind  plants  the  tree.  Wasatch  Na- 
tional Forest,  Utah 82 

Figure  29.  At  the  Fort  Valley  Forest  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, Coconino  National  Forest,  Arizona.  A 
typical  meteorological  station.  Forest  offi- 
cer measuring  precipitation.  Note  the  shel- 
ter which  contains  thermometers  and  also  the 
electrically  equipped  instruments  to  record 
the  direction  and  velocity  of  the  wind  .  ,  90 


ILLUSTRATIONS  Ixiii 

FACING 

PAGE 

Figure  30.  Forest  officer  ascertaining  the  amount  of 
evaporation  from  a  free  water  surface.  Fort 
Valley  Forest  Experiment  Station,  Flag- 
staff^ Arizona 90 

Figure  31.  Forest  Ranger  with  his  pack  horses  traveling 
over  his  district.  Meadow  Creek,  foot  of 
Mt.  Wilson,  Montezuma  National  Forest, 
Colorado 102 

Figure  32.  A  plank  of  Incense  cedar  affected  by  a  dis- 
ease known  as  "pin  rot."  By  cutting  the 
cedar  timber  when  it  is  mature  this  can  be 
largely  avoided.  Lassen  National  Forest, 
California.  Photo  by  the  author  .  .  .  114 

Figure  33.  The  western  pine  forests  will  some  day  be  a 
great  source  for  naval  stores.  By  distilling 
the  crude  resin  of  the  Jeffrey  pine  a  light 
volatile  oil — abietene — is  secured  which  has 
great  healing  and  curative  properties.  Las- 
sen National  Forest,  California.  Photo  by 
the  author 114 

Figure  34.  A  forest  fire  lookout  station  at  the  summit  of 
Mt.  Eddy.  Mt.  Shasta  in  the  background. 
California 124 

Figure  35.  A  forest  fire  lookout  station  on  the  summit 
of  Brokeoff  Mountain,  elevation  9,500  feet. 
Lassen  National  Forest,  California.  Photo 
by  the  author 128 

Figure  36.  Turner  Mountain  lookout  station,  Lassen 
National  Forest,  California.  This  is  a  10 
ft.  by  10  ft.  cabin  with  a  stove  and  with 
folding  bed,  table,  and  chairs.  The  forest 
officer  stationed  here  watches  for  forest  fires 
day  and  night  throughout  the  fire  season. 
Photo  by  the  author 128 

Figure  37.  A  fire  line  cut  through  the  low  bush-like 
growth  of  "Chaparral"  on  the  Angeles  Na- 


Ixiv  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FACING 

PAGE 


tional  Forest,  California.  This  "Chapar- 
ral" is  of  great  value  for  regulating  stream 
flow.  The  streams  are  used  for  water  power, 
domestic  purposes,  and  for  irrigating  many 
of  the  largest  lemon  and  orange  groves  of 
southern  California 132 

Figure  38.  A  forest  officers'  temporary  camp  while  fight- 
ing forest  fires.  Near  Oregon  National  For- 
est, Oregon 132 

Figure  39.  Putting  out  a  ground  fire.  Even  if  the  fire 
does  not  burn  the  standing  timber,  it  kills  the 
young  trees  and  so  weakens  the  larger  ones 
that  they  are  easily  blown  over.  Wallowa 
National  Forest,  Oregon 136 

Figure  40.  Forest  officers  ready  to  leave  a  tool  box  for 
a  forest  fire  in  the  vicinity.  Such  tool  boxes 
as  these  are  stationed  at  convenient  places 
on  National  Forests  ready  for  any  emer- 
gency. Arapaho  National  Forest,  Colorado  136 

Figure  41.  A  forest  fire  on  the  Wasatch  National  For- 
est, Utah.  Forest  officers  trying  to  stop  a 
forest  fire  by  cutting  a  fire  line.  Note  the 
valuable  growth  of  young  trees  which  they 
are  trying  to  save  at  the  right  .  .  .  .  140 

Figure  42.  A  forest  fire  running  in  dense  underbrush  on 

one  of  the  National  Forests  in  Oregon    .      .      144 

Figure  43.  Men  in  a  dense  forest  with  heavy  under- 
growth clearing  away  brush  to  stop  the  fire 
as  it  is  running  down  hill.  Crater  National 
Forest,  Oregon 144 

Figure  44.  Fire  in  a  Lodgepole  pine  forest  in  Colorado. 

Arapaho  National  Forest,  Colorado  .      .      .      148 

Figure  45.  A  mountain  fire  in   "Chaparral"   five  hours 

after  it  started.     Pasadena,  California  .      .      148 


ILLUSTRATIONS  Ixv 

J-ACINO 
PAGB 

Figure  46.  A  few  years  ago  this  was  a  green,  luxuriant 
forest.  Picture  taken  after  the  great  fires  of 
August  20,  1910,  on  the  Coeur  d'Alene  Na- 
tional Forest  near  Wallace,  Idaho  .  .  .  152 

Figure  47.  The  first  evidence  of  insect  attack  are  the 
reddish  brown  pitch  tubes  on  the  bark. 
Lodgepole  pine  infested  by  the  mountain  pine 
beetle.  Lassen  National  Forest,  California. 
Photo  by  the  author  .  ...  .  .  .  150 

Figure  48.  The  last  stage  of  an  insect-attacked  tree. 
The  tree  is  dead  and  the  dry  bark  is  falling 
off.  Lassen  National  Forest,  California. 
Photo  by  the  author 156 

Figure  49.  Wrecked  farm  buildings  due  to  flood  of  May 
21,  1901,  Nolichucky  River,  near  Erwin, 
Tenn.  This  is  one  result  of  denuding  the 
Appalachian  Mountains  of  their  forest  cover  162 

Figure  50.  When  steep  hillsides  are  stripped  of  their 
forest  growth,  erosion  results.  Erosion  has 
been  especially  serious  in  the  Appalachian 
Mountains.  View  taken  in  Madison  County, 
North  Carolina  .  ....  -.  .  »  .  162 

Figure  5 1 .  A  fertile  corn-field  covered  with  sand,  gravel 
and  debris  brought  down  from  the  moun- 
tains by  floods.  These  farm  lands  are 
ruined  beyond  redemption.  This  could  have 
been  prevented  by  preserving  the  forests  on 
the  watershed  of  this  river 166 

Figure  52.  A  view  towards  Mt.  Adams  and  the  head- 
waters of  Lewis  River.  Council  Lake  in  the 
foreground.  National  Forest  lands  lie  at 
the  headwaters  of  practically  every  large 
western  river.  This  means  that  the  water 
supply  for  the  western  people  used  for  do- 
mestic use,  water  power,  and  irrigation  is 
being  protected  from  pollution  and  destruc- 


Ixvi  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING 
PAGE 

tion.     View  taken  on  the  Rainier  National 
Forest,  Washington 172 

Figure  53.  A  large  storage  reservoir  used  to  irrigate 
the  ranches  in  the  valley  below.  Elevation 
10,500  feet.  Battlement  National  Forest, 
Colorado.  Photo  by  the  author  .  .  .  .  176 

Figure  54.  A  sheep  herder's  camp  used  temporarily  by 
Forest  Service  timber  cruisers.  Elevation 
about  10,000  feet.  Battlement  National 
Forest,  Colorado.  Photo  by  the  author  .  176 

Figure  55.  View  taken  in  the  Coast  Range  mountains 
of  California  where  Sugar  pine  and  Douglas 
fir  are  the  principal  trees.  Klamath  Na- 
tional Forest,  California.  Photo  by  the  au- 
thor   180 

Figure  56.  A  typical  mountain  scene  in  the  California 
Coast  Range.  On  these  steep  slopes  a  for- 
est cover  is  of  vital  importance.  Klamath 
National  Forest,  California.  Photo  by  the 
author 180 

Figure  57.  A  forest  officer  at  work  on  a  high  mountain 
peak  making  a  plane-table  survey  and  tim- 
ber estimate  of  National  Forest  lands. 
Photo  by  the  author 182 

Figure  58.  A  government  timber  cruiser's  summer  camp. 
These  cruisers  get  a  fairly  accurate  estimate 
of  Uncle  Sam's  timber  resources  at  a  cost 
of  from  2  to  5  cents  an  acre.  Photo  by  the 
author 182 

Figure  59.  Forest  officers  moving  camp  while  engaged  in 
winter  reconnoissance  work.  All  food,  beds, 
and  clothing  are  packed  on  "Alaska"  sleds 
and  drawn  by  the  men  themselves.  Photo 
by  the  author 184 


ILLUSTRATIONS  Ixvii 

FACING 
PAGE 

Figure  60.  A  winter  reconnoissance  camp  showing 
snow-shoes,  skis,  "Alaska"  sleds,  and  bull 
hide  used  to  repair  the  webbing  on  the  snow- 
shoes.  Lassen  National  Forest,  California. 
Photo  by  the  author 184 

Figure  61.  A   group   of   giant   redwoods.     Santa   Cruz 

County,  California 186 

Figure  62.  A  big  Sugar  pine  tree  about  six  feet  in  di- 
ameter. This  is  the  most  valuable  timber 
species  in  California.  Photo  by  the  author  188 

Figure  63.  A  Western  Yellow  pine  forest  in  California. 
These  trees  are  from  four  to  six  feet  in  di- 
ameter and  from  150  to  200  feet  high.  Note 
the  Forest  Service  timber  cruiser  measuring 
the  tree  at  the  left.  Photo  by  the  author  .  188 

Figure  64.  Logging  in  California.  Powerful  steam  en- 
gines pull  the  logs  from  the  woods  to  the 
railroad  and  load  them  on  flat  cars.  Photo 
by  the  author 190 

Figure  65.  The  loaded  flat  cars  reach  the  saw-mill 
where  the  logs  are  unloaded  and  sawn  into 
lumber.  During  the  fiscal  year  1917  tim- 
ber sales  on  the  National  Forests  brought 
into  the  National  Treasury  almost  $1,700,- 
000.00.  Photo  by  the  author  ....  190 

Figure  66.  Scene  in  Montana.  Forest  officers  construct- 
ing a  telephone  line  through  the  Flathead 
National  Forest .  .  192 

Figure  67.  Forest  Ranger,  accompanied  by  a  lumber- 
man, marking  National  Forest  timber  for  cut- 
ting in  a  timber  sale.  Coconino  National 
Forest,  Arizona 192 

Figure  68.  An  excellent  illustration  showing  the  differ- 
ence between  unrestricted  logging  as  prac- 
ticed by  lumbermen,  and  conservative  log- 


Ixviii  ILLUSTRATIONS 


*ACINO 

PAGE 


ging  as  practiced  by  the  Forest  Service.  In 
the  foreground  is  the  unrestricted  logging 
which  strips  the  soil  of  every  stick  of  tim- 
ber both  large  and  small;  in  the  background 
is  the  Forest  Service  logging  area  which 
preserves  the  young  growth  to  insure  a  fu- 
ture supply  of  timber  for  the  West.  Bitter- 
root  National  Forest,  Montana  .  .  .  .  194 

Figure  69.  View  showing  the  Forest  Service  method  of 
piling  the  brush  and  debris  after  logging, 
and  also  how  stump  heights  are  kept  down 
to  prevent  waste.  New  Mexico  .  .  .  .  196 

Figure  70.  A  tie-cutting  operation  on  a  National  For- 
est. These  piles  of  railroad  ties  are  being 
inspected,  stamped,  and  counted  by  Forest 
rangers.  From  this  point  the  ties  are 
"skidded'*  to  the  banks  of  a  stream  to  be 
floated  to  the  shipping  point.  Near  Evans- 
ton,  Wyoming 196 

Figure  71.  Brush  piles  on  a  cut-over  area  before  burn- 
ing. Forest  Service  methods  aim  to  clean 
up  the  forest  after  logging  so  that  forest 
fires  have  less  inflammable  material  to  feed 
on.  Bitterroot  National  Forest,  Montana  .  198 

Figure  72.  At  a  time  of  the  year  when  there  is  least  dan- 
ger from  fire  the  brush  piles  are  burned. 
Missoula  National  Forest,  Montana  .  .  .  198 

Figure  73.  Counting  sheep  as  they  leave  the  corral. 
Sheep  and  cattle  are  pastured  on  the  Na- 
tional Forests  at  so  many  cents  per  head, 
hence  they  must  be  counted  before  they 
enter  in  the  spring.  Wasatch  National  For- 
est, Utah 208 

Figure  74.  Logging  National  Forest  timber.     Santa  Fe 

National  Forest,  New  Mexico      ....      208 


ILLUSTRATIONS  Ixix 

TACINO 
PAG1 

Figure  75.  Sheep  grazing  on  the  Montezuma  National 
Forest  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Wilson,  Colorado. 
Over  7,500,000  sheep  and  goats  grazed  on 
the  National  Forests  during  the  fiscal  year 
1917 216 

Figure  76.  Grazing  cattle  on  a  National  Forest  in  Col- 
orado. Permits  were  issued  during  1917  to 
graze  over  2,000,000  cattle,  horses,  and 
swine  on  the  National  Forests  .  .  .  .  216 

Figure  77.  North  Clear  Creek  Falls,  Rio  Grande 
National  Forest,  Colorado.  The  National 
Forests  contain  about  one-third  of  all  the 
potential  water-power  resources  of  the 
United  States 280 

Figure  78.  The  power  plant  of  the  Colorado  Power 
Company,  on  the  Grand  River,  Holy  Cross 
National  Forest,  Colorado.  Every  fiscal 
year  there  is  a  substantial  increase  in  water 
power  development  on  the  National  Forests  230 

Figure  79.  This  is  only  one  of  the  thousands  of  streams 
in  the  National  Forests  of  the  West  ca- 
pable of  generating  electric  power.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  over  40  per  cent,  of  the 
water  resources  of  the  Western  States  are 
included  in  the  National  Forests.  Photo  by 
the  author 232 

Figure  80.  View  in  the  famous  orange  belt  of  San 
Bernardino  County,  California.  These  or- 
chards depend  absolutely  upon  irrigation. 
The  watersheds  from  which  the  necessary 
water  comes  are  in  the  National  Forests  and 
are  protected  by  the  Forest  Service.  Some 
of  the  smaller  watersheds  in  these  mountains 
are  said  to  irrigate  orchards  valued  at  $10,- 
000,000 232 


CALIFORNIA 


OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  CREATION  AND  ORGANIZATION 
OF  THE  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

ECONOMIC    CONDITIONS   WHICH   LED  TO   FOREST 
CONSERVATION 

In  order  that  the  reader  may  fully  appreciate  the 
gigantic  task  that  has  been  accomplished  in  bring- 
ing the  National  Forest  administration  and  organ- 
ization to  its  present  state  of  development,  it  is 
necessary  to  briefly  sketch  the  conditions  that  led 
up  to  the  inauguration  of  the  Federal  Forest  Pol- 
icy before  we  stop  to  consider  that  policy  and  the 
establishment  and  organization  of  National  For- 
ests. 

Prodigality  Leads  Finally  to  Conservation. 
Every  great  movement,  which  has  for  its  object  the 
betterment  of  the  lot  of  mankind,  lags  far  behind 
the  times.  There  must  be  an  actual  economic  need 
before  a  new  movement  can  be  expected  to  take 


iv    -v. 

^^^^j6i4til^3lONAL  FORESTS 

root   and   flourish.     Forest   conservation  had   no 
place  in  the  household  economy  of  nations  that  had 
forests   in   superabundance.     Their   forests   were 
used  with  prodigality.     It  seems  to  be  a  great 
human  failing  to  use  natural  resources  lavishly 
when  the  supply  is  apparently  unlimited,  and  to 
practice  frugality  only  when  the  end  of  a  resource 
is  in  sight.     Thus  we  find  in  the  pages  of  forestry 
history  that  all  nations  have  begun  to  husband  their 
forest  resources  only  after  having  felt  the  pinch  of 
want.     In  our  country  history  repeats  itself  and 
our  federal  policy  of  forest  conservation  property 
begins  at  the  time  that  the  national  conscience  was 
awakened  to  the  realization  that  if  we  did  not  prac- 
tice economy  with  our  forest  resources  we  would 
some  day  be  without  an  adequate  supply  of  timber' 
and  forage,  and  be  confronted  with  other  dangers 
and  calamities  that  follow  the  destruction  of  forests. 
The  March  of  Forest  Destruction.    When  the 
London  Company  settled  at  Jamestown,  Virginia, 
in  1607  it  found  that  unlimited  pine  and  hard- 
wood forests  confronted  it  on  every  side.     Nor  did 
these  early  settlers  ever  find  a  way  out  of  this  for- 
ested wilderness  except  by  clearings  made  with  the 
ax.     When  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  landed  at  Cape 


CREATION  AND  ORGANIZATION      3 

Cod  in  1620  they  found  similar  forests  stretching 
in  all  directions  from  their  town-site.  After  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  became  pretty  well  settled  the 
home-builders  began  moving  westward  through 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  what  is  now  Ohio. 
Still  nothing  but  unbroken,  virgin  forests  were  en- 
countered. Westward  to  the  Mississippi  civiliza- 
tion advanced  and  still  forests  reigned  supreme. 
Then  the  Middle  West,  the  Rocky  Mountain  re- 
gion, and  finally  the  Pacific  Coast  regions  were  set- 
tled. During  140  years  civilization  has  spread  from 
coast  to  coast  and  of  that  vast  wilderness  of  forest 
there  is  left  only  a  remnant  here  and  there.  Tne 
giant  pines  that  sheltered  De  Soto  and  his  thousand 
followers  on  their  ill-fated  expedition  in  1541  to  the 
Mississippi  River  have  long  since  disappeared. 
Along  the  Allegheny  and  Appalachian  ranges  the 
vast  forests  that  once  harbored  the  hostile  Narra- 
gansetts  and  Iroquois  are  now  but  a  memory.  The 
giant  oak,  ash,  and  cypress  forests  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  are  rapidly  being  decimated  by  the  big 
saw-mills  that  work  night  and  day  to  outdo  each 
other.  In  the  north  the  dense  and  magnificent  for- 
ests of  white  pine  that  greeted  Father  Marquette, 
when  he  planted  his  missionary  station  at  Sault  Ste. 


4  OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

Marie  in  1668,  have  been  laid  low.  Unproductive 
wastes,  sandy  barrens,  and  useless  underbrush  now 
greet  the  eye.  In  fact  the  pine  forests  which  cov- 
ered the  greater  part  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and 
Minnesota  have  been  leveled  by  the  woodman's  ax. 
The  army  of  lumbermen  has  moved  now  to  the 
Coast  to  again  turn  virgin  timberlands  into  un- 
productive wastes. 

Thus  forest  destruction  has  followed  civilization. 
Statistics  show  very  vividly  how  gradually  one 
large  lumbering  center  after  another  has  become 
exhausted,  often  leaving  behind  desolation  and  busi- 
ness depression.  In  these  large  centers  thriving 
towns  sprang  up  only  to  disappear  again  after  the 
removal  of  the  forest  wealth.  In  1850  about  55 
per  cent,  of  the  annual  cut  of  lumber  came  from 
the  New  England  States;  even  as  late  as  1865  New 
York  furnished  more  lumber  than  any  State  in  the 
Union.  By  1890  Michigan  had  reached  the  zenith 
of  its  production  and  in  that  year  the  Lake  States 
furnished  36  per  cent,  of  the  lumber  cut.  By  1909 
the  Southern  States  had  increased  their  cut  to  over 
50  per  cent,  of  the  total  of  the  country.  In  1913 
the  cut  of  the  State  of  Washington  was  the  largest 
ever  recorded  for  that  State  or  for  any  other  State, 


CREATION  AND  ORGANIZATION      5 

even  outdoing  Michigan  during  its  Golden  Age. 
In  1915  about  20  per  cent,  of  the  cut  came  from 
the  Coast  but  the  South  still  furnished  almost  50 
per  cent. 

Our  Lumber  and  Water  Supply  Imperiled.  In 
our  prodigal  use  of  our  forest  resources  we  have 
become  the  most  lavish  users  of  wood  in  the  world. 
While  the  annual  consumption  per  capita  for 
France  is  about  25  cubic  feet,  and  that  of  Germany 
about  40  cubic  feet,  our  per  capita  consumption  is 
in  the  neighborhood  of  250  cubic  feet.  And  the 
most  terrible  thing  about  our  reckless  methods  has 
been  that  we  have  wasted  by  crude  lumbering  meth- 
ods and  we  have  let  great  forest  fires  consume  many 
times  as  much  lumber  as  we  have  used.  There  have 
been  vast  public  and  private  losses  through  unnec- 
essary forest  fires  which  not  only  consumed  mil- 
lions of  dollars'  worth  of  timber  every  year,  but 
which  also  cost  the  lives  of  thousands  of  settlers. 
Then,  as  every  one  knows,  by  being  grossly  negli- 
gent with  our  forests,  our  rivers  have  visited  their 
wrath  upon  the  unfortunate  people  in  the  valleys. 
Many  streams  have  become  raging  torrents  in  the 
spring  and  only  chains  of  stagnant  pools  in  the 
summer,  thus  destroying  their  value  for  water 


6  OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

power  and  irrigation.  Cotton  mills,  which  for- 
merly used  water  power  all  the  year  round,  now 
must  depend  upon  more  expensive  steam  po^er 
generated  by  coal  to  keep  their  mills  running  in 
times  of  water  shortage,  while  during  high  water 
there  is  the  great  danger  that  the  entire  factory 
might  be  swept  away. 

* 

THE  FIRST  STEPS  IN  FEDERAL  FOREST  CONSERVATION 

Gradually  the  national  conscience  became  awak- 
ened to  the  need  of  a  more  rational  use  of  our  forest 
resources.  But  it  was  not  until  after  the  Civil 
War  that  the  first  steps  were  taken.  As  was  to 
be  expected,  the  States  in  which  forest  destruction 
had  reached  its  worst  stages  were  the  first  to  at- 
tempt to  mend  their  ways,  thus  leading  the  way 
along  which  the  Federal  Government  was  soon  to 
follow. 

The  Upbuilding  of  the  West.  The  decade  fol- 
lowing the  Civil  War  is  marked  by  the  construc- 
tion of  some  of  our  great  trans-continental  rail- 
roads and  the  consequent  development  of  the  great 
western  country.  In  fact  between  1865  and  1875 
the  railroad  mileage  of  the  United  States  doubled. 
The  first  trans-continental  railroad,  the  Union 


CREATION  AND  ORGANIZATION      7 

Pacific,  was  completed  in  1869.  Others  soon  fol- 
lowed. To  encourage  construction  and  settlement 
vast  tracts  of  land  were  granted  to  the  railroad 
companies  by  the  Government,  and  with  the  land 
much  valuable  timber  passed  from  government 
ownership.  After  the  construction  of  the  railroads 
towns  and  villages  sprang  up  like  mushrooms.  As 
was  to  be  expected  with  this  increased  development 
the  destruction  of  our  forests  received  an  added 
impetus.  The  Lake  States,  then  the  center  of 
the  lumber  industry,  began  to  take  alarm  at  the 
rapidity  with  which  their  hillsides  were  being  de- 
nuded. Destructive  lumbering,  usually  followed 
by  devastating  forest  fires,  was  fast  decimating  the 
virgin  pine  forests.  The  young  growth  that  had 
escaped  the  lumberman's  ax  fell  a  prey  to  forest 
fires  which  soon  took  the  form  of  annual  conflagra- 
tions. As  the  population  increased  the  new  sec- 
tions of  the  country  were  settled,  and  as  manufac- 
turing operations  were  extended  timber  was  getting 
higher  in  price. 

The  Lake  States  First  to  Act.  The  first  at- 
tempt to  remedy  the  situation  was  made  by  the 
State  of  Wisconsin.  In  1867  the  Wisconsin  legis- 
lature suggested  a  committee  who  should  report 


8  OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

upon  the  destruction  of  Wisconsin's  forests.  The 
next  year  Michigan  took  a  similar  step  and  in  1869 
the  Maine  legislature  began  to  look  into  their  wan- 
ing supply  by  appointing  a  committee  to  estimate 
the  standing  timber  of  the  State.  As  early  as  this 
observations  and  calculations  upon  the  rate  of  con- 
sumption of  lumber  pointed  to  a  not  far  distant 
wood  famine. 

The  First  Federal  Steps.  The  first  step  taken 
by  the  federal  authorities  was  at  the  urgent  request 
of  the  Statistician  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture in  1870.  At  that  time  lands  were  recognized 
as  being  either  "improved"  or  "unimproved"  farm 
lands.  He  recommended  that  the  category  of  "un- 
improved farm  lands"  be  subdivided  into  "wood- 
lands" and  "other  unimproved  lands."  By  thus 
dividing  off  woodlands  from  other  unimproved 
farm  lands  more  attention  was  concentrated  upon 
the  former.  This  attention  was  manifested  in  the 
investigations  that  followed  shortly  in  which  it  was 
estimated  that  39  per  cent,  of  the  area  of  the  coun- 
try was  in  woodland.  This  was  the  first  and  most 
logical  step  toward  taking  an  inventory  of  our  for- 
est resources. 

Another  early  attempt  to  assist  in  forest  conser- 


CREATION  AND  ORGANIZATION      9 

vation  was  an  attempt  to  reforest  the  treeless  plains 
of  our  Western  States.  On  March  3,  1873,  the 
Timber  Culture  Act  was  passed  by  Congress  by 
which  the  planting  to  timber  of  40  acres  of  land 
in  the  treeless  territories  conferred  the  title  to  160 
acres  of  public  domain.  At  first  this  act  seemed 
to  work  out  as  intended  but  it  did  not  take  very 
many  years  before  it  proved  a  dismal  failure.  Set- 
tlers had  no  knowledge  of  planting  trees;  the  re- 
strictions of  the  act  could  not  be  enforced,  and  the 
act  was  open  to  other  abuses.  The  act  was  finally 
repealed  in  1891.  Many  similar  laws  for  encour- 
aging the  planting  of  timber  were  passed  by  the 
legislatures  of  some  of  the  Middle  Western  States, 
but  all  met  with  little  success.  In  1874  Nebraska 
inaugurated  Arbor  Day.  By  this  act  of  the  legis- 
lature the  second  Wednesday  in  April  of  each  year 
was  set  aside  for  planting  trees.  Other  States  have 
followed  the  example  of  Nebraska,  so  that  to-day 
almost  every  State  provides  one  day  in  the  year 
for  planting  trees.  Thus  Arbor  Day  has  become 
practically  a  national  institution. 

The  Act  of  August  16,  1876.  The  first  con- 
structive piece  of  legislation  enacted  by  the  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States  was  the  Act  of  August 


10         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

16,  1876.  This  was  the  first  of  a  series  of  Acts 
passed  by  Congress  which,  although  occurring 
many  years  apart  in  some  cases,  put  forest  conser- 
vation upon  a  firm  basis.  Under  the  first  act  the 
Commissioner  of  Agriculture  was  directed: 

"To  appoint  some  man  of  approved  attainments  who  is 
practically  well  acquainted  with  methods  of  statistical  inquiry 
and  who  has  evinced  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  ques- 
tions relating  to  the  national  wants  in  regard  to  timber,  to 
prosecute  investigations  and  inquiries  with  the  view  of  ascer- 
taining the  annual  amount  of  consumption,  importation,  and  ex- 
portation of  timber  and  other  forest  products;  the  probable 
supply  for  future  wants;  the  means  best  adapted  to  their 
preservation  and  renewal;  the  influence  of  forests  upon 
climate  and  the  means  that  have  been  successfully  applied  in 
foreign  countries,  or  that  may  be  deemed  applicable  in  this 
country  for  the  preservation  and  restoration  or  planting  of 
forests,  and  to  report  upon  the  same  to  the  Commissioner  of 
Agriculture,  to  be  by  him  in  a  separate  report  transmitted  to 
Congress." 

Dr.  Franklin  B.  Hough,  an  active,  untiring,  and 
intelligent  scholar,  was  the  first  man  to  be  ap- 
pointed by  this  act.  As  Commissioner  of  Forestry 
he  prepared  the  first  report  and  submitted  it  to  Con- 
gress. The  next  year,  in  1877,  Congress  granted 
its  first  appropriation  of  $6,000,  "for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  other  facts  and  information  preparatory 
to  establishing  a  Division  of  Forestry." 


CREATION  AND  ORGANIZATION     11 

Further  Work  Under  the  Act.  The  office  of 
Commissioner  of  Forestry  gradually  enlarged  the 
scope  of  its  duties  and  functions.  Five  years  later, 
due  to  the  ever-increasing  importance  of  the  sub- 
ject, a  distinct  division,  the  Division  of  Forestry, 
was  established  in  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 
The  duties  and  powers  of  this  Division  were  "to  de- 
vote itself  exclusively  to  such  investigations  of  the 
subject  as  would  tend  to  the  fullest  development 
of  the  resources  of  the  country  in  that  respect,  to 
discover  the  best  methods  of  managing  arid  pre- 
serving our  waning  forests  and  to  maintain  in  all  its 
bearings  the  universal  interest  involved  in  that  in- 
dustry." 

In  1881  an  agent  of  the  Department  was 
sent  to  Europe  to  study  the  work  of  forestry 
there.  In  1882  the  American  Forestry  Congress 
was  organized.  This  organization  had  for  its  ob- 
ject the  discussion  and  dissemination  of  the  import- 
ant facts  of  forestry,  and  while  strictly  a  private 
body,  had  a  considerable  influence  in  later  years  in 
educating  the  people  to  the  needs  of  forestry  and 
in  helping  to  establish  a  rational  forest  policy  in 
the  United  States.  Its  first  meeting  took  place  in 
Cincinnati.  At  a  second  meeting  held  the  same 


12         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

year  in  Montreal  the  name  was  changed  to  the 
American  Forestry  Association  and  since  then  has 
been  the  center  of  all  private  efforts  to  advance 
the  forestry  movement.  In  1898  this  association 
began  the  publication  of  a  propagandist  journal 
which  is  now  called  American  Forestry.  In 
1884  the  duty  of  making  experiments  with  timber 
was  added  to  the  functions  of  the  Division.  The 
next  year  the  collecting  and  distribution  of  valuable 
economic  tree  seeds  was  begun.  In  1886  the  study 
of  the  biology  of  some  of  our  important  timber 
trees  was  taken  up,  while  in  the  following  year 
silvicultural  problems  first  engaged  the  attention 
of  the  Division. 

THE  FIRST  FOREST  RESERVES  ESTABLISHED  MARCH  30, 

1891 

The  Situation  Before  1891.  Before  1891  the 
Division  of  Forestry  was  simply  a  bureau  of  in- 
formation. In  general  the  information  supplied 
was  of  a  twofold  nature.  It  was  technical  in  so 
far  as  it  related  to  the  management  of  private 
woodlands  and  statistical  in  so  far  as  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  conditions  of  our  forest  resources  in- 
duced the  application  of  forestry  principles.  Up 


CREATION  AND  ORGANIZATION     13 

to  that  date  Congress  had  neither  appropriated 
enough  money  for  efficient  outdoor  work  nor  did 
she  attempt  to  put  any  government  woodlands  un- 
der the  control  of  the  Division.  Therefore  there 
had  been  no  management  because  there  were  no 
forests  to  manage.  This  one-sided  development 
of  the  forestry  work  of  the  Division  was  greatly 
impeding  a  rational  development  of  the  forest  con- 
servation movement. 

The  Need  of  a  Forest  Policy.  The  need  for  a 
well-defined  forest  policy  with  respect  to  the  gov- 
ernment forest  lands  now  began  to  be  felt.  Rail- 
road land  grants,  the  Homestead  Act,  Preemption 
claims,  and  the  Timber  and  Stone  Act  were  taking 
much  valuable  timberland  out  of  government  own- 
ership. People  secured  claims  under  these  acts 
merely  for  the  timber  that  was  on  them.  The  pur- 
poses of  the  laws  and  acts  of  Congress  were  being 
fraudulently  evaded.  Also  the  Government  had 
restrictive  and  protective  laws  in  regard  to  its  lands, 
but  it  could  not  enforce  them  on  account  of  lack 
of  appropriations  with  which  to  maintain  an  ad- 
ministrative and  protective  organization.  The  time 
was  now  ripe  for  an  executive  policy  to  manage 
the  woodlands  that  still  remained  in  the  possession 


14         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

of  the  Government  before  it  was  too  late  to  save 
what  was  left. 

The  Act  of  March  3, 1891.  The  Division  of  For- 
estry was  designed  by  the  nature  of  its  duties  to 
be  more  than  a  bureau  of  information.  The  exist- 
ence of  a  governmental  department  to  promulgate 
forestry  principles  while  the  Government  itself  had 
made  no  provision  to  apply  such  principles  to  its 
own  permanent  timberlands  was  an  incongruity 
that  suggested  further  legislative  action.  This 
was  in  part  supplied  by  the  law  of  March  3, 
1891,  which  conferred  upon  the  President  the  power 
to  establish  Forest  Reservations.  The  first  exercise 
of  power  under  this  act  was  the  presidential  procla- 
mation creating  the  Yellowstone  Park  Timber 
Land  Reserve  under  President  Harrison  on  March 
30,  1891.  This  was  probably  the  wisest  step  yet 
taken  in  the  development  of  a  National  Forest 
policy;  but,  unfortunately,  the  act  left  the  Division 
simply  a  bureau  of  information  as  it  was  before. 

AN  ANOMALOUS  CONDITION — FOREST  RESERVES  WITH- 
OUT FOREST  ADMINISTRATION 

The  Need  of  Administration  on  the  Reserves. 
At  first  thought  it  will  be  seen  that  this  piece  of 


CREATION  AND  ORGANIZATION     15 

legislation  must  necessarily  remain  inoperative  un- 
less it  were  followed  by  the  establishment  of  a 
proper  administration  of  the  Reserves  based  upon 
sound  forestry  principles.  Furthermore,  the  law 
withdrew  from  public  use  all  such  lands  that 
might  be  acquired  under  it.  It  was  now  easy  for 
the  Government  to  acquire  lands ;  the  question  that 
next  presented  itself  was  how  to  protect  and  regu- 
late the  use  of  these  new  acquisitions.  Forest  pro- 
tection cannot  be  secured  without  forest  rangers 
and  forest  guards ;  nor  forest  management  without 
technical  foresters.  The  very  reasons  for  estab- 
lishing the  Reserves  would  point  to  the  absolute 
need  of  a  system  of  managing  them.  These  rea- 
sons were  briefly: 

"to  prevent  annual  conflagrations;  to  prevent  useless  de- 
struction of  life  and  property  by  fires,  etc.;  to  provide  benefit 
and  revenue  from  the  sale  of  forest  products,  fuels,  and 
timbers;  to  administer  this  resource  for  future  benefit;  to  in- 
crease the  stock  of  game;  to  promote  the  development  of  the 
country;  to  give  regular  employment  to  a  professional  staff; 
to  secure  continuous  supplies  of  wood  and  to  get  the  maximum 
amount  of  good  from  each  acre." 

Such  arguments  as  these  assume  the  presence  of  a 
force  of  men  to  protect  and  administrate  these 
Reserves. 


16         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

More  Reserves  Created.  In  spite  of  this  serious 
fault  in  the  Act  of  March  3,  1891,  more  Forest 
Reservations  were  created.  By  1894  Presidents 
Harrison  and  Cleveland  had  created  about  17,500,- 
000  acres  and  on  a  single  day,  February  22,  1897, 
President  Cleveland  proclaimed  over  20,000,000 
acres.  By  the  close  of  1897  a  total  of  almost  40,- 
000,000  acres  of  Forest  Reserves  had  been  estab- 
lished. 

During  the  six  years  following  the  law  giving  the 
President  power  to  establish  Reserves,  the  Reserves 
were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  General  Land 
Office.  The  appropriations  of  Congress  were 
small,  amounting  to  less  than  $30,000  annually. 
Such  appropriations  were  used  mainly  for  testing 
timber  strength  and  the  conditions  affecting  quality. 

THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  RESERVES  UNDER  THE 
GENERAL,  LAND  OFFICE 

The  Act  of  June  4, 1897.  The  Secretary  of  the 
Interior  in  1896  requested  the  National  Academy 
of  Sciences,  the  legally  constituted  advisor  of  the 
Government  in  scientific  matters,  to  investigate,  re- 
port upon,  and  recommend  a  National  Forest  pol- 
icy. This  resulted  in  the  Act  of  June  4,  1897, 


CREATION  AND  ORGANIZATION    17 1 

under  which,  with  subsequent  amendments,  the  Na- 
tional Forests  are  now  being  administered.  Under 
this  act  the  Reserves  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
General  Land  Office,  Department  of  the  Interior. 
It  charged  this  office  with  the  administration  and 
protection  of  the  Forest  Reservations.  Later  the 
Geological  Survey  was  charged  with  surveying  and 
mapping  them,  and  the  Division  of  Forestry  was 
asked  to  give  technical  advice.  It  is  very  evident 
that  the  Division  of  Forestry  containing  all  the 
trained  scientific  staff  had  no  relation  to  the  govern- 
ment forestry  work  except  as  the  offices  of  the  De- 
partment of  the  Interior  might  apply  for  assistance 
or  advice.  It  is  true  that  an  important  step  had 
been  taken,  but  the  complete  separation  of  the  ad- 
ministration by  the  General  Land  Office  and  the 
force  of  trained  men  in  the  Division  of  Forestry  was 
a  serious  defect. 

The  Act  of  June  4  might  be  called  the  Magna 
Charta  of  national  forestry.  The  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey  undertook  the  task  of  surveying,  classify- 
ing, and  describing  the  Forest  Reservations.  At  a 
cost  of  about  one  and  one-half  million  dollars  over 
70,000,000  acres  of  Forest  Reserves  were  mapped 
and  described.  The  General  Land  Office  undertook 


18         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

the  administration  and  Forest  Superintendents  and 
Rangers  were  appointed  to  take  charge  of  the 
Reservations.  The  rules  and  regulations  for  ad- 
ministering the  Reserves  were  formulated  by  the 
Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office. 

The  Division  of  Forestry  in  1898.  On  July  1, 
1898,  the  Division  of  Forestry  employed  11  per- 
sons, 6  clerical  and  5  scientific.  There  were  also 
some  collaborators  and  student  assistants.  There 
was  no  field  equipment  and  no  field  work.  But  in 
the  fall  of  1898  an  important  step  was  taken. 
From  that  time  on  the  Division  of  Forestry  offered 
practical  assistance  to  forest  owners  and  thus  it 
shifted  its  field  of  activity  from  the  desk  to  the 
woods.  The  lumbermen  were  met  on  their  own 
grounds  and  actual  forest  management  for  purely 
commercial  ends  was  undertaken  by  well  known 
lumbermen.  From  that  time  dates  the  solution  of 
specific  problems  of  forest  management  and  the 
development  of  efficient  methods  of  attacking  them. 
The  work  of  the  Division  at  this  time,  therefore, 
consisted  of  activities  along  4  distinct  lines:  (1) 
that  of  working  plans,  (2)  that  of  economic  tree 
planting,  (3)  that  of  special  investigations,  and  (4) 
that  of  office  work.  Thus  it  will  be  seen,  even  at 


CREATION  AND  ORGANIZATION    19 

this  late  date  the  Division  had  practically  nothing  to 
say  about  the  scientific  forestry  methods  which 
should  be  used  on  the  Reservations. 

The  Bureau  of  Forestry.  In  1901  the  Division 
of  Forestry  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  Bureau,  but 
this  was  a  change  in  name  only  and  carried  with 
it  no  change  in  the  handling  of  the  Government's 
vast  forest  resources. 

THE  CONSOLIDATION   OF  THE  FORESTRY  WORK  IN 
THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE  IN  1905 

The  Act  of  February  1, 1905.  The  necessity  of 
consolidating  the  various  branches  of  government 
forest  work  became  apparent  and  was  urged  upon 
Congress  by  President  Roosevelt  and  by  the  execu- 
tive .officers  concerned.  This  was  finally  accom- 
plished by  the  act  of  February  1,  1905,  by  which 
entire  jurisdiction  over  the  Forest  Reserves  was 
transferred  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture.  Mat- 
ters of  surveying  and  passage  of  title,  however, 
were  still  kept  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Gen- 
eral Land  Office.  By  this  act  the  Division  of  For- 
estry for  the  first  time  in  its  career  became  an  ad- 
ministrative organization.  On  July  1  of  the  same 
year  the  Bureau  of  Forestry  became  the  Forest 


20          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

Service  and  in  1907  the  change  of  name  from  "For- 
est Reserves"  to  "National  Forests"  was  made  to 
correct  the  impression  that  the  forests  were  like 
reserves  which  had  been  withdrawn  from  use. 

Early  Forestry  Education  and  Literature.  The 
Act  of  February  1,  1905,  was  the  final  step  which 
established  the  federal  policy  with  regard  to  our 
National  Forests.  At  this  stage  it  will  be  interest- 
ing to  note  briefly  the  status  of  the  science  of  Amer- 
ican Forestry  and  of  forestry  education.  As  late 
as  the  spring  of  1898  there  was  no  science  or  liter- 
ature on  American  Forestry,  nor  could  education 
in  the  subject  be  procured  in  the  country.  But 
soon  thereafter  several  forestry  schools  were  estab- 
lished, namely,  Cornell  Forestry  School  in  1898, 
Yale  School  of  Forestry  and  Biltmore  Forest 
School  in  1899,  and  the  University  of  Michigan 
Forestry  School  in  1903.  The  beginning  of  the 
twentieth  century  saw  the  first  professional  forest- 
ers graduated  and  taking  upon  themselves  the  task 
of  applying  scientific  forestry  methods  to  the  Na- 
tional Forests.  Further  evidence  of  the  growth  of 
the  profession  of  forestry  was  the  organization  of 
the  Society  of  American  Foresters  in  1900.  The 
first  professional  journal  was  started  in  1902  as  the 


CREATION  AND  ORGANIZATION    21 

Forestry  Quarterly,  and  other  scientific  forestry 
literature  was  issued  by  the  Government.  The 
scientific  knowledge  gathered  in  the  field  work 
since  1898  has  taken  the  form  of  a  rapidly  growing 
literature  on  the  subject  which  has  formed  the  basis 
of  the  science  of  American  Forestry. 

Changes  in  the  Forest  Service  Personnel.  By 
1905  the  work  of  the  Forest  Service  had  increased 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  number  of  employees 
was  increased  to  821.  With  the  opening  of  the  for- 
estry schools,  professional  foresters  became  avail- 
able and  the  National  Forests  then  began  to  be  put 
into  the  hands  of  expert  scientific  men.  Gradually 
the  old  type  of  untrained,  non-scientific  woodsman 
is  being  replaced  by  the  trained  forester.  In  ad- 
dition, the  entire  force  was  made  a  part  of  the  clas- 
sified Civil  Service  and  the  plan  of  political  ap- 
pointees was  banished  forever. 

More  National  Forests  Created.  While  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  National  Forests  was  being  ad- 
justed the  area  of  National  Forests  was  constantly 
being  increased.  To  the  40,000,000  acres  of  Re- 
serves set  aside  by  Presidents  Harrison  and  Cleve- 
land before  1897,  President  McKinley  added  over 
7,000,000  acres  until  1901.  When  Roosevelt  be- 


22         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

came  President  the  National  Forest  policy  received 
an  added  impetus  and  vigor.  Being  a  great  lover 
of  the  out-of-door-life  and  being  especially  well  ac- 
quainted, on  account  of  his  extensive  travels,  with 
the  great  western  country,  President  Roosevelt 
threw  his  powerful  influence  into  the  balance. 
With  the  close  cooperation  of  Mr.  Gifford  Pinchot, 
his  warm  personal  friend,  and  at  that  time  the  Chief 
Forester,  Mr.  Roosevelt  set  aside  between  1901  and 
1909  over  148,000,000  acres  of  National  Forests, 
more  than  three  times  as  much  as  had  been  set  aside 
by  all  his  predecessors  together.  Since  1909  a  care- 
ful adjustment  of  the  boundaries  has  been  going  on, 
both  Presidents  Taft  and  Wilson  adding  small 
areas  here  and  there,  which  were  found  valuable 
for  forestry  purposes,  or  eliminating  small  areas 
found  to  have  no  value.  Acts  of  Congress  passed 
since  1907  prohibit  the  addition  by  the  President 
to  the  National  Forests  already  established  in 
Washington,  Oregon,  California,  Idaho,  Montana, 
Wyoming,  and  Colorado.  Additions  can  be  made 
in  these  States  only  by  special  act  of  Congress.  A 
number  of  such  acts  have  been  passed ;  some  of  them 
upon  petitions  of  the  people  in  these  States. 

The  Growth  of  the  Forest  Service.     The  growth 


CREATION  AND  ORGANIZATION     23 

of  the  Forest  Service  between  1897  and  1917  is 
little  short  of  marvelous.  The  number  of  its  em- 
ployees has  increased  from  61  in  1898  to  3,544  on 
June  30,  1917.  The  annual  appropriations  have 
increased  from  less  than  $30,000  in  1897  to  $5,712,- 
275  for  the  fiscal  year  1918.  'But  besides  this  ap- 
propriation for  1918  the  Weeks  Law  calls  for  an 
expenditure  of  $2,100,000  and  the  Federal  Aid 
Road  Act  for  $1,000,000  more.  The  receipts  of 
the  National  Forests  have  also  increased  by  leaps 
and  bounds.  In  1897  the  receipts  were  practically 
negligible  in  amount  but  by  1906  they  had  reached 
approximately  $800,000.  In  the  fiscal  year  1917 
they  were  more  than  $3,457,000. 

Recent  Modifications  in  the  Organization.  Fur- 
ther slight  modifications  in  the  organization,  as  es- 
tablished in  1905,  were  made  since  that  date.  Be- 
fore 1908  all  the  work  of  the  Forests  was  supervised 
from  the  main  office  in  Washington  and  this  ar- 
rangement caused  much  delay  and  inconvenience 
in  carrying  on  the  business  of  the  Forests.  In  the 
fall  of  1908  six  administrative  districts  were  estab- 
lished, to  which  another  was  added  in  1914.  By 
this  arrangement  the  National  Forests  are  divided 
into  7  groups  and  each  group  has  a  district  head- 


24          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

quarters  in  a  large  city  or  town  centrally  located 
in  the  group.  The  District  Office  acts  as  sort  of 
clearing  house  for  all  National  Forest  business. 
All  matters  in  the  administration  and  protection  of 
the  National  Forests  that  cannot  be  settled  on  the 
Forest  or  appear  to  be  of  general  importance  to 
the  district  are  taken  to  the  District  Office,  which 
is  in  charge  of  a  District  Forester  and  several  as- 
sistants. Beginning  in  1909  Forest  Experiment 
Stations  were  established  in  each  district  and  in 
1910  the  Forest  Products  Laboratory,  the  first  one 
of  its  kind  in  the  world,  was  formally  opened  at 
Madison,  Wisconsin.  The  Weeks  Law,  passed  on 
March  1,  1911,  provides  for  the  acquisition  of  for- 
est lands  on  the  watersheds  of  navigable  streams  in 
the  Appalachian  and  White  Mountains.  Up  to 
June  30,  1917,  over  1,500,000  acres  have  been  ap- 
proved for  purchase  in  these  mountains.  The 
Pisgah  National  Forest  in  North  Carolina  was 
recently  organized  from  purchased  lands. 

THE  PRESENT  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  FOREST  SERVICE 

The  Administrative  Districts.  The  administra- 
tion of  the  National  Forests  and  the  conduct  of  all 
matters  relating  to  forestry  which  have  been  placed 


CREATION  AND  ORGANIZATION    25 

upon  the  Department  of  Agriculture  are  in  charge 
of  the  Forester  whose  office  is  in  Washington,  D.  C. 
To  facilitate  the  administration  of  the  Forests  7 
districts  have  been  established  with  headquarters  in 
the  following  places: 

District  1.  (Montana,  northeastern  Washington,  northern 
Idaho,  and  northwestern  South  Dakota)  Mi§; 
soula,  Montana. 

District  2.  ("Colorado,  Wyoming,  the  remainder  of  South 
Dakota,  Nebraska,  northern  Michigan,  and 
northern  Minnesota)  Denver,  Colorado. 

District  3.  (Most  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico)  Albuquerque, 
New  Mexico. 

District  4.  (Utah,  southern  Idaho,  western  Wyoming,  eastern 
and  central  Nevada,  and  northwestern  Arizona) 
Ogden,  Utah. 

District  5.  (California  and  western  Nevada)  San  Francisco, 
California. 

District  6.  (Washington,  Oregon,  and  Alaska)  Portland, 
Oregon. 

District  7.  (Arkansas,  Florida,  Oklahoma,  and  the  newly  pur- 
chased areas  in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  North 
Carolina,  Tennessee,  Virginia,  West  Virginia, 
New  Hampshire,  Maine,  and  Alabama,)  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

Each  administrative  district  embraces  a  number  of 
National  Forests  and  is  in  charge  of  a  Forest  officer 
known  as  the  District  Forester  who  is  responsible  to 
the  Forester  for  all  administrative  and  technical 


26         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

work  performed  within  the  district.  Each  District 
Forester  is  aided  by  several  assistants  and  by  spe- 
cialists in  various  lines  of  work.  Each  National 
Forest  is  in  charge  of  a  Forest  Supervisor  who  may 
have  a  Deputy  and  a  Forest  Assistant  or  Forest 
Examiner  to  assist  him  if  the  amount  of  business  on 
a  National  Forest  warrants  it.  Each  National 
Forest  is  subdivided  into  Ranger  districts  for  the 
purpose  of  facilitating  the  protection  work.  Each 
Ranger  district  is  in  charge  of  a  Ranger  who  may 
be  assisted  by  other  Rangers  or  Forest  Guards. 

The  Washington  Office.  The  work  of  the  For- 
est Service  in  Washington  is  organized  under  the 
Office  of  Forester  and  the  Branches  of  Operation, 
Lands,  Silviculture,  Research,  Grazing,  Engineer- 
ing, and  Acquisition  of  lands  under  the  Weeks  Law. 
The  Office  of  Forester  includes  the  Associate  For- 
ester, the  Editor,  the  Dendrologist,  the  Chief  of 
Accounts,  besides  Inspectors  and  Lumbermen. 
The  Branch  of  Operation  administers  and  super- 
vises the  business  organization  of  the  Forest  Service 
and  has  general  supervision  of  the  personnel,  quar- 
ters, equipment,  and  supplies  of  the  Service  and  all 
the  fire  protection  and  permanent  improvement 
work  on  the  National  Forests.  The  Branch  of 


CREATION  AND  ORGANIZATION    27 

Lands  examines  and  classifies  lands  in  the  Forests 
to  determine  their  value  for  forest  purposes,  con- 
ducts the  work  in  connection  with  claims  on  the  For- 
ests prior  to  proceedings  before  United  States  reg- 
isters and  receivers,  and  assists  the  Chief  Engineer 
of  the  Service  in  handling  matters  in  connection 
with  the  occupation  and  use  of  the  National  Forest 
lands  for  hydro-electric  power  purposes.  The 
Branch  of  Silviculture  supervises  the  sale  and  cut- 
ting of  timber  on  the  National  Forests  and  cooper- 
ates with  States  in  protecting  forest  lands  under 
Section  2  of  the  Weeks  Law.  The  Branch  of  Re- 
search has  supervision  over  the  investigative  work 
of  the  Service,  including  silvicultural  studies, 
studies  of  state  forest  conditions,  investigations  of 
the  lumber  and  wood-using  industries  and  lumber 
prices,  and  the  investigative  work  carried  on  at  the 
Forest  Products  Laboratory  and  the  Forest  Ex- 
periment Stations.  The  Branch  of  Grazing  super- 
vises the  grazing  of  live  stock  upon  the  National 
Forests,  allotting  grazing  privileges  and  dividing 
the  ranges  between  different  owners  and  classes  of 
stock.  It  is  also  charged  with  the  work  of  improv- 
ing depleted  grazing  lands  and  of  cooperating  with 
the  Federal  and  state  authorities  in  the  enforce- 


28          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

merit  of  stock  quarantine  regulations.  The  Branch 
of  Engineering  has  to  do  with  the  proper  designing 
and  planning  of  roads,  trails,  and  bridges ;  with  the 
engineering  problems  involved  in  granting  permits 
to  hydro-electric  plants  in  the  Forests ;  and  with  the 
making  of  forest  maps,  surveys,  improving  the  for- 
est atlas,  and  other  drafting  work.  The  Branch  of 
Acquisition  of  Lands  under  the  Weeks  Law  has 
charge  of  examining  and  evaluating  such  lands 
which  are  offered  for  purchase  and  recommending 
suitable  lands  for  purchase  under  the  act. 

The  District  Offices.  Each  District  Office  (of 
which  there  are  7)  is  organized  in  the  main  along 
the  same  lines  as  the  Washington  office.  Each 
Branch  in  the  Washington  office  is  represented  in 
the  District  Office  by  an  Assistant  District  Forester 
or  some  similar  official.  The  Office  of  the  District 
Forester  has  in  addition  the  Office  of  Solicitor 
(Forest  Service  Branch),  which  is  in  charge  of  an 
assistant  to  the  Solicitor  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture.  He  is  the  advisor  to  the  District  For- 
ester in  all  matters  of  law  which  arise  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  National  Forests.  His  opin- 
ions are  usually  binding  except  that,  in  urgent  cases, 
appeal  may  be  taken  to  the  Solicitor  of  the  Depart- 


CREATION  AND  ORGANIZATION    29 

ment  at  Washington  through  the  Forester.  Many 
cases  of  law  arise  on  the  National  Forests  such  as 
cases  of  timber,  fire,  and  grazing  trespass.  All 
these  are  handled  in  the  Office  of  the  District  For- 
ester. The  Office  of  Accounts  in  the  districts  is 
in  charge  of  the  District  Fiscal  Agent  who  is  an 
assistant  to  the  Chief  of  Accounts  in  the  Washing- 
ton Office.  Three  of  the  districts  have  a  Branch 
of  Products.  The  Experiment  Stations  in  the  dis- 
tricts are  under  the  supervision  of  the  District  For- 
ester and  the  men  in  charge  of  them  bear  the  same 
relation  to  the  District  Office  as  the  Supervisor  of  a 
National  Forest.  Most  of  the  districts  also  have 
in  the  Office  of  Silviculture  a  Consulting  Patholo- 
gist who  has  charge  of  all  problems  relating  to  tree 
diseases. 

The  following  scheme  will  illustrate  in  a  general 
way  the  organization  of  the  Forest  Service  and 
show  how  the  National  Forests  are  administered  at 
the  present  time: 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE 
NATIONAL  FORESTS 

Under  the  head  of  administration  we  must  neces- 
sarily understand  those  factors  which  are  essential 
to  carry  on  the  business  of  the  National  Forests. 
First  of  all  we  must  consider  the  personnel,  that  is, 
the  men  that  make  up  the  organization  by  means  of 
which  the  work  on  the  Forests  is  done.  Next  we 
must  learn  how  the  money  for  this  large  enterprise 
is  appropriated  each  year  to  carry  on  the  work, 
and  how  it  is  divided  up  so  that  each  National  For- 
est gets  an  amount  each  year  in  proportion  to  its 
needs.  Then  again  men  and  money  are  of  little 
avail  without  tools,  equipment,  and  supplies.  The 
proper  distribution  of  these  to  the  147  National 
Forests  is  no  small  business  organization  in  itself. 
Lastly  we  must  learn  of  the  many  permanent  im- 
provements which  are  made  on  the  National  For- 
ests which  are  absolutely  necessary  for  their  proper 

administration,  protection  and  use.     No  large  con- 
so 


ADMINISTRATION  31 

structive  forestry  enterprise  is  complete  without 
these.  They  consist  of  the  construction  of  means 
of  transportation,  means  of  communication,  and 
living  quarters  for  the  personnel;  of  extensive 
planting  of  young  trees  to  reestablish  forests  which 
have  been  destroyed  by  fires ;  the  carrying  on  of  re- 
search and  experiments  to  aid  in  the  development 
of  the  best  methods  of  forestry;  and  the  classifica- 
tion and  segregation  of  agricultural  lands  and  the 
establishment  of  permanent  boundaries.  All  these 
matters  must  necessarily  be  considered  before  we 
attempt  to  learn  about  the  protection  and  the  utili- 
zation of  the  National  Forests. 

PERSONNEL 

Duties  of  Forest  Officers.  Forest  officers  are  the 
servants  of  the  people  and  they  are  expected  to 
assist  in  every  way  possible  those  who  wish  to  use 
the  resources  of  the  Forests.  Their  first  duty  is  to 
enforce  the  regulations  under  which  all  permits, 
leases,  sales,  and  rentals  are  made.  These  regula- 
tions cover  every  phase  of  National  Forest  activity 
and  in  conducting  business  under  them  they  must 
not  let  personal  or  other  interests  weigh  against  the 
good  of  the  Forests.  For  the  good  of  the  Forest 


32         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

Service  their  conduct  must  be  prompt  and  courte- 
ous and  their  business  methods  sensible  and  effect- 
ive. They  make  it  their  business  to  prevent  mis- 
understandings and  violations  of  forest  regulations 
rather  than  to  correct  mistakes  after  they  have  been 
made. 

On  the  National  Forests  there  are  permanent 
employees  and  temporary  employees.  Under  the 
former  heading  come  the  Forest  Supervisor,  the 
Deputy  Supervisor,  the  Forest  Assistant,  the  For- 
est Ranger,  Lumbermen,  Sealers,  Planting  Assist- 
ants, and  Forest  Clerks.  Under  the  latter  cate- 
gory come  the  Forest  Guards,  the  Field  Assistants, 
and  the  Temporary  Laborers.  All  permanent 
positions  are  in  the  classified  Civil  Service.  Va- 
cancies are  filled  from  a  certified  list  of  those  who 
have  passed  a  Civil  Service  examination  or  by  pro- 
motion from  the  lower  ranks. 

The  Forest  Supervisor.  A  Forest  Supervisor  is 
in  charge  of  each  National  Forest  and  he  plans  the 
work  of  the  Forest  and  supervises  its  execution. 
He  works,  of  course,  under  direct  instruction  from 
the  District  Forester  and  is  responsible  to  him. 
When  the  amount  of  business  on  the  Forest  war- 
rants it  he  is  assisted  by  a  Deputy  Supervisor. 


Figure  9.  Forest  officers  in  front  of  the  Forest  Supervisor's  sum- 
mer headquarters.  Note  the  many  telephone  wires  that  lead  from 
the  office.  This  is  50  miles  from  the  railroad.  Lassen  National  For- 
est, California. 

Figure  10.  Scene  in  front  of  the  Forest  Supervisor's  headquarters. 
Sheep  leaving  the  National  Forest  summer  range  in  the  fall  to  go  to 
winter  range  in  the  valley.  Lassen  National  Forest,  California. 


ADMINISTRATION  33 

Both  these  positions  are  filled  by  the  promotion  of 
experienced  men  in  the  classified  Civil  Service. 
The  Forest  Supervisor's  headquarters  are  located 
in  towns  conveniently  situated  with  regard  to  the 
most  important  points  in  his  Forest.  The  town  is 
usually  located  on  a  railroad  and  centrally  located 
with  regard  to  the  various  Ranger  districts  of  his 
Forest.  His  headquarters  are  usually  the  center 
of  the  system  of  roads  and  trails  which  covers  his 
entire  Forest.  From  his  office  also  the  telephone 
system  radiates  in  all  directions  to  his  various 
District  Rangers.  In  short,  the  Forest  Supervisor's 
office  is  so  situated  that  he  has  at  all  times  full 
knowledge  of  all  the  activities  of  his  Forest ;  he  is 
therefore  in  a  position  to  give  advice  and  directions 
by  telephone  to  his  Rangers  and  other  subordinates 
almost  at  any  time  of  the  day  or  night.  Such  inti- 
mate communication  is  of  especial  importance  dur- 
ing the  fire  season. 

Some  Forests  have  two  headquarters,  one  that 
is  occupied  in  the  winter  and  the  other  that  is  occu- 
pied in  the  summer.  The  summer  quarters  is  usu- 
ally most  advantageously  situated  as  far  as  the  busi- 
ness of  the  Forest  is  concerned,  but  owing  to  deep 
snow,  which  seriously  interferes  with  mail  and  tele- 


34         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

phone  connections,  a  more  accessible  winter  quar- 
ters is  occupied  from  October  to  May. 

The  force  of  men  the  Forest  Supervisor  has 
working  under  him  varies  of  course  with  the  amount 
of  work  to  be  performed.  The  permanent  force  is 
usually  from  10  to  15  men,  which  during  the  fire 
season  may  be  increased  to  from  25  to  40  and  in 
cases  of  great  fire  emergency  sometimes  to  several 
hundred  men,  by  the  addition  of  temporary  em- 
ployees. 

The  Forest  Assistant.  The  other  permanent 
men  on  a  National  Forest  are  the  Forest  Assistant 
or  Forest  Examiner,  Forest  Rangers,  and  a  Forest 
clerk  with  his  assistant,  the  Stenographer  and  Type- 
writer. The  Forest  Assistant  or  Examiner  ranks 
next  to  the  Deputy  and  his  work  is  directed  by  the 
Forest  Supervisor,  to  whom  he  makes  his  reports. 
The  Forest  Assistant  is  the  technical  man  of  the 
Forest  force,  who  upon  making  good  is  promoted  to 
Forest  Examiner.  He  is  employed  upon  such  tech- 
nical lines  of  work  as  the  examination  and  mapping 
of  forest  areas ;  reports  on  applications  for  the  pur- 
chase of  timber;  marking,  scaling,  and  managing 
timber  sales ;  the  survey  of  boundaries ;  and  nursery 
and  planting  work. 


ADMINISTRATION  35 

Not  only  is  a  Forest  Assistant  called  upon  to 
perform  these  various  lines  of  technical  work.  The 
very  nature  of  the  country  he  is  in  indicates  that  he 
must  be  an  all-round  practical  man.  He  must  be 
able  to  ride,  pack,  and  drive.  He  must  often  live 
alone  and  therefore  must  do  his  own  cooking,  wash- 
ing, and  take  care  of  other  personal  needs.  He 
must  be  strong  and  healthy  and  capable  of  under- 
going hardships,  at  least  be  able  to  stand  long  days 
of  walking,  climbing,  and  horseback  riding.  His 
various  duties  and  the  different  situations  that  arise 
often  call  for  knowledge  and  practical  ability  as  a 
carpenter,  a  mechanic,  a  plumber,  an  engineer,  a 
surveyor,  and  many  other  lines  of  work.  Perhaps 
more  important  than  his  education  and  ability  are 
his  personal  qualifications.  His  temperament  must 
be  such  that  he  must  feel  satisfied  and  contented 
under  the  most  trying  conditions.  He  must  be  able 
to  do  without  most  of  the  comforts  of  modern  civ- 
ilization for  most  of  the  time.  For  these  reasons 
the  country-bred  western  youths  are  more  liable  to 
make  a  success  of  the  work  than  the  city-bred  east- 
erner. 

The  Forest  Ranger.  The  Forest  Ranger's  posi- 
tion is  one  of  the  most  important  and  at  the  same 


36          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

time  the  most  difficult  positions  on  our  National 
Forests. 

The  Forest  Ranger's  headquarters  are  usually  at 
the  nearest  business  center  to  his  district  and  if  that 
is  not  practicable  permanent  headquarters  are  pro- 
vided on  the  Forest.  In  any  case  his  station  is  lo- 
cated as  near  to  the  center  of  the  business  activity 
of  his  district  as  possible.  If  his  headquarters 
are  centrally  located  in  his  district,  trails,  roads,  and 
telephone  lines  lead  out  from  his  cabin  to  all  parts 
of  his  district.  His  station  is  built  and  maintained 
at  government  expense  and  usually  has,  besides 
his  living  quarters,  a  barn,  tool-house,  pasture,  cor- 
ral, and  other  necessary  improvements. 

The  Forest  Ranger  performs  such  routine  work 
as  the  supervision  of  timber  sales,  grazing,  free  use, 
special  use,  and  other  contracts  and  permits,  the 
carrying  out  of  the  protection  and  improvement 
plans  for  his  district,  and  other  administrative 
duties.  The  average  Forest  Ranger  has  a  terri- 
tory of  from  75,000  to  150,000  acres  to  take  care 
of.  On  June  30,  1917,  there  were  about  1,100 
Forest  Rangers  employed  on  the  National  Forests 
who  were  assisted  by  over  900  Assistant  Forest 
Rangers  and  Forest  Guards.  The  protective  force 


ADMINISTRATION  37 

was  therefore  about  one  man  for  every  77,800  acres 
or  about  121  square  miles. 

The  Forest  Ranger  must  be  a  man  who  is  physi- 
cally sound  and  capable  of  enduring  great  hard- 
ships. He  is  often  required  to  do  heavy  manual 
labor  in  fighting  fire  under  the  most  trying  condi- 
tions. For  this  reason  he  must  have  great  endur- 
ance. They  are  usually  men  who  have  been 
brought  up  in  timber  work,  on  ranches  or  farms,  or 
with  the  stock  business.  They  are  therefore  thor- 
oughly familiar  with  the  region  in  which  they  are 
to  be  employed  and  especially  acquainted  with  the 
rough,  semi-primitive  life  which  is  characteristic  of 
remote  places  in  the  West. 

He  must  be  able  to  take  care  of  himself  and  his 
horses  in  regions  remote  from  settlement  and  sup- 
plies. He  must  be  able  to  build  trails,  roads  and 
cabins ;  he  must  be  able  to  ride,  pack,  and  drive  and 
deal  tactfully  with  all  classes  of  people.  He  must 
know  something  about  land  surveying,  estimating, 
and  scaling  timber ;  of  logging,  mining  laws,  and  the 
live  stock  business.  His  duties  include  patrol  to 
prevent  fire  and  trespass;  estimating,  surveying, 
and  marking  timber ;  the  supervision  of  cutting  and 
similar  work.  He  is  authorized  to  issue  permits, 


38         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

build  cabins  and  trails,  oversee  grazing  business, 
investigate  mining  and  agricultural  claims,  report 
upon  applications,  and  report  upon  and  arrest  for 
the  violation  of  Forest  laws  and  regulations. 

The  Forest  Clerk.  The  Forest  Clerk  performs 
the  clerical  work  and  the  book-keeping  in  the  Forest 
Supervisor's  office.  He  sometimes  has  a  Stenogra- 
pher and  Typewriter  to  assist  him  and  to  do  the 
mechanical  work  of  correspondence.  Lumbermen 
are  specialists  who  are  thoroughly  well  versed  in  all 
that  pertains  to  logging,  milling,  scaling,  and  cruis- 
ing timber.  They  are  assigned  temporarily  to  For- 
ests where  need  for  their  work  arises.  Sealers  are 
men  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  art  of  scaling  or 
measuring  logs,  ties,  poles,  cordwood  and  other  for- 
est products.  Planting  Assistants  are  specialists 
in  nursery  and  planting  work.  Their  duties  in- 
clude the  preparation  of  seed  beds,  seed  sowing, 
transplanting  and  care  of  seedlings,  and  field  plant- 
ing. They  are  assigned  to  the  Forest  Service  nur- 
series. 

Temporary  Laborers,  Forest  Guards,  and  Field 
Assistants  are  employed  during  the  field  season 
when  additional  work  on  the  National  Forests  war- 
rants it.  Forest  Guards  perform  temporary 


•5 


THE  WORK  OF  FOREST  OFFICERS  ix  THE  WINTER 

Figure  11.  Forest  officers  and  lumberjacks  burning  the  slash  re- 
sulting from  a  timber  sale.  The  snow  on  the  ground  makes  the  burn- 
ing less  dangerous.  Washakie  National  Forest,  Wyoming.  Photo  by 
the  author. 

Figure  12.  Forest  officers  at  a  winter  timber-cruising  camp  re- 
pairing snow  shoes.  Besides  cruising  the  timber,  these  men  make  a 
logging  map  of  the  government  lands,  to  show  how  the  timber  can 
best  be  taken  out.  Lassen  National  Forest,  California.  Photo  by 
the  author. 


ADMINISTRATION  39 

protection,  administrative,  and  improvement  work; 
Field  Assistants,  usually  students  of  forestry  serv- 
ing their  apprenticeships,  are  usually  employed  at 
minor  technical  work  and  timber  cruising;  Tempo- 
rary Laborers  are  employed  by  the  day  or  month  at 
any  kind  of  improvement  or  maintenance  work. 

Forest  Service  Meetings.  A  general  meeting  of 
the  Forest  force  is  usually  held  annually  to  give  the 
Forest  officers  the  benefit  of  each  other's  experience, 
to  keep  in  touch  with  the  entire  work  of  the  Forest, 
and  to  promote  "esprit-de-corps."  The  time  and 
place  of  the  meeting  depends  upon  circumstances, 
but  it  is  usually  held  at  a  time  of  the  year  when 
there  is  least  danger  from  fire.  Often  joint  meet- 
ings are  held  with  the  forces  of  adjacent  Forests. 
This  annual  meeting  idea  is  carried  through  the  en- 
tire Forest  Service.  The  Forest  Supervisors  in 
each  administrative  district  usually  meet  at  the 
district  headquarters  once  a  year  and  the  District 
Foresters  of  all  the  districts  together  with  repre- 
sentative officers  from  the  Washington  office  usu- 
ally meet  annually  at  some  centrally  located  dis- 
trict office  such  as  the  one  at  Ogden,  Utah.  These 
meetings  assist  greatly  in  keeping  all  the  work  in 
the  various  branches  of  the  Service  up  to  the  same 


40         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

standard  of  efficiency,  in  avoiding  mistakes  by 
learning  the  experience  of  others,  and  in  correlating 
and  summarizing  work  done  on  similar  problems  in 
widely  different  regions. 

-\    HOW  THE  FOREST  SERVICE  APPROPRIATION   IS 
ALLOTTED    TO   THE   NATIONAL   FORESTS 

It  is,  indeed,  a  great  task  to  distribute  the  money 
that  is  each  year  appropriated  by  Congress  for  the 
Forest  Service  so  that  the  Washington  Office,  the 
District  Offices,  and  the  147  National  Forests  each 
get  their  just  share  and  so  that  each  dollar  buys  the 
greatest  amount  of  good  for  the  whole  people  with- 
out extravagance  or  waste.  To  do  this  a  large  or- 
ganization has  been  built  up  composed  of  business 
men  who  have  absolutely  no  selfish  interest  at  heart 
and  among  whom  graft  or  favoritism  is  unknown 
and  unheard  of.  It  may  be  said  without  exaggera- 
tion that  the  business  of  the  National  Forests  is  on 
a  thoroughly  sound  and  efficient  basis. 

Forest  Service  Expenses.  While  for  reasons  al- 
ready spoken  of,  the  cash  receipts  are  considerably 
below  the  expenses  for  running  the  Forests,  the 
rapidly  increasing  system  of  roads,  trails  and  tele- 
phone lines  points  not  only  to  a  constantly  increas- 


ADMINISTRATION  41 

ing  use  and  service  to  the  public  but  also  as  a  conse- 
quence to  increased  financial  returns. 

The  expenses  of  the  Forest  Service  on  the  Na- 
tional Forests  are  of  a  two-fold  character.  There 
are  costs  of  administration  and  protection  on  the 
one  hand  which  might  be  called  ordinary  running 
expenses,  and  the  costs  of  improvements,  reforesta- 
tion, and  forest  investigations  on  the  other.  The 
latter  are  really  in  the  nature  of  investments,  and 
do  not  properly  fall  into  the  category  of  operating 
costs.  Yet  they  are  absolutely  necessary  to  the 
welfare  of  the  Forests.  They  comprise  expendi- 
tures for  roads,  trails,  telephone  lines,  and  similar 
improvements,  the  establishment  of  forests  by  the 
planting  of  young  trees  which  have  been  destroyed 
by  past  fires,  the  carrying  on  of  research  and  ex- 
periments to  aid  in  the  development  of  the  best 
methods  of  forestry,  and  expenses  connected  with 
the  classification  and  segregation  of  agricultural 
lands  in  the  Forests.  The  establishment  of  per- 
manent boundaries  and  the  cost  of  making  home- 
stead and  other  surveys  are  also  in  the  nature  of 
investments.  Such  expenditures  may  be  looked 
upon  as  money  deposited  in  the  bank  to  bear  inter- 
est; they  will  not  bring  direct  financial  returns  now 


42          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

but  will  produce  great  revenue  many  years  hence. 

The  Agricultural  Appropriation  Bill.  The  fis- 
cal year  in  the  Forest  Service  extends  from  July 
1  of  one  year  to  June  30  of  the  next.  Every 
year,  in  the  Agricultural  Appropriation  Bill  that 
comes  before  Congress,  there  is  an  appropriation 
for  the  Forest  Service  for  its  work.  This  appropri- 
ation is  not  in  a  lump  sum  but  by  allotments  or 
funds.  There  is  the  fund  for  Fire  Fighting,  one 
for  General  Expenses,  another  for  Statutory  Sal- 
aries, another  for  Improvements,  another  for  Emer- 
gency Fire  conditions,  and  usually  there  are  special 
appropriations  for  various  purposes.  For  the  fis- 
cal year  1918  (extending  from  July  1, 1917,  to  June 
30, 1918)  there  are  special  appropriations  for  Land 
Classification,  for  purchasing  land  under  the  Weeks 
Law,  for  cooperative  fire  protection  under  the 
Weeks  Law,  and  for  the  Federal  Aid  Road  Act. 

The  Ranger's  Protection  and  Improvement 
Plans.  Long  before  this  bill  reaches  Congress 
every  Forest  Ranger  on  every  National  Forest, 
every  Forest  Supervisor,  and  every  Branch  of  the 
Washington  and  the  District  Offices  have  been  esti- 
mating how  much  money  they  will  need  to  carry 
out  the  plans  proposed  for  the  next  fiscal  year. 


ADMINISTRATION  43 

Each  Forest  Ranger  works  and  studies  over  his 
plans  for  the  next  year  with  which  he  hopes  to  pro- 
tect his  district  from  fire.  He  plans  and  figures 
out  what  improvements  are  urgently  necessary  to 
make  the  remote  parts  of  his  district  more  accessi- 
ble. He  tries  to  arrive  at  a  safe  estimate  of  the 
cost  of  so  many  miles  of  trails,  roads,  and  telephone 
lines,  so  many  cabins,  barns,  corrals,  etc.,  which  he 
thinks  are  absolutely  essential  to  the  proper  admin- 
istration of  his  district,  and  he  estimates  the  number 
of  Forest  Guards,  lookout  men,  and  patrol  men  he 
will  need  for  the  protection  of  his  territory.  Usu- 
ally these  items  are  summed  up  under  his  annual 
Improvement  Plan  and  his  Protection  Plan  re- 
spectively. 

The  Supervisor's  Plans.  When  the  Forest  Su- 
pervisor receives  such  estimates  and  plans  from  each 
of  his  Forest  Rangers  he  studies  them  over  care- 
fully and  tries  to  decide  in  an  impartial  way  what 
improvements  are  most  necessary  in  each  Ranger 
district  and  what  additional  men  are  necessary  for 
the  adequate  protection  of  the  region  in  question. 
He  carefully  weighs  the  arguments  for  and  against 
each  expenditure  and  decides  what  improvements 
must  be  made  now  and  which  ones  it  would  be 


44         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

possible  to  postpone  for  one  or  more  years  without 
detriment  to  the  work  of  his  Forest  as  a  whole. 
For  in  most  cases  the  amount  of  necessary  work  to 
be  done  on  each  Ranger  district  is  far  in  excess  of 
the  amount  which  the  Forest  Supervisor  could  ap- 
prove owing  to  the  inadequacy  of  the  Forest  Serv- 
ice funds.  So,  for  the  Forest  Supervisor,  it  is 
merely  a  question  of  how  low  he  can  keep  his  esti- 
mates for  money  for  the  ensuing  year  until  such  a 
time  when  Congress  will  appropriate  more  money 
so  that  all  the  important  and  necessary  work  can 
be  done.  In  most  cases  therefore  the  major  part 
of  all  the  expenditures  recommended  by  the  Forest 
Ranger  is  warranted,  but  the  Forest  Supervisor 
knows  that  he  must  cut  all  the  estimates  down  con- 
siderably in  order  to  bring  the  total  Forest  estimate 
reasonably  near  the  amount  he  is  likely  to  get,  bas- 
ing his  judgment  upon  what  he  got  the  year  before. 
Approval  of  Plans  by  the  District  Forester. 
The  District  Forester  then  gets  the  National  Forest 
estimate  from  every  one  of  his  25  or  30  Forest 
Supervisors  and  he  in  turn  must  decide  what  pro j  - 
ects  on  each  Forest  are  immediately  necessary  and 
which  ones  can  be  postponed.  The  same  process 
is  repeated  in  the  Washington  office  when  all  the 


ADMINISTRATION  45 

estimates  from  the  District  Foresters  are  received, 
and  the  Forester  in  turn  sends  to  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  his  estimates  by  allotments  or  funds, 
which  in  turn  are  put  before  Congress.  While 
Congress  sometimes  makes  minor  changes  in  the 
Forest  Service  appropriation,  in  most  cases  the  bill 
is  passed  as  it  stands. 

The  District  Fiscal  Agent.  The  money  appro- 
priated by  Congress  is  allotted  to  each  district,  and 
in  turn  to  each  National  Forest  and  finally  to  each 
Ranger  district  by  funds,  such  as  General  Ex- 
penses, Fire  Fighting,  Improvements,  etc.  In  each 
district  the  financial  matters  are  taken  care  of  in  the 
Office  of  Accounts  by  the  District  Fiscal  Agent. 
He  is  the  Assistant  of  the  Chief  of  the  Forest  Serv- 
ice Branch  of  the  Division  of  Accounts  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  and  pays  all  the  bills  in- 
curred by  the  district  and  receives  all  the  money 
which  comes  in  from  the  sale  of  National  Forest 
resources.  The  amount  of  money  appropriated  for 
the  district  is  credited  to  him  and  he  disburses  this 
appropriation  in  accordance  with  the  Fiscal  Regu- 
lations of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  No 
other  officer  is  allowed  to  receive  money  for  the  sale 
of  timber,  forage,  or  other  resources;  in  fact  no 


46         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

other  official  in  the  District  handles  any  of  the 
Forest  Service  funds  whatsoever. 

All  remittances  by  users  of  the  National  Forests 
are  made  to  the  U.  S.  District  Depository.  If  a 
rancher  has  bought  some  timber  from  a  Forest 
Ranger,  he  is  given  a  letter  of  transmittal  showing 
the  amount  of  the  purchase  which  he  must  send  to 
the  District  Fiscal  Agent  with  the  amount  neces- 
sary to  pay  for  the  timber.  The  letter  of  transmit- 
tal explains  the  purpose  of  the  remittance. 

Tax  Money  Paid  to  the  States.  Another  inter- 
esting feature  of  the  National  Forest  business  is  the 
money  paid  each  State  out  of  the  annual  receipts 
in  lieu  of  taxes.  It  must  be  remembered  that  Na- 
tional Forests  do  not  pay  taxes  to  the  States  in 
which  they  are  located.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
National  Forests  were  private  property  they  would 
bring  into  the  county  and  state  treasuries  yearly 
taxes.  To  compensate  the  State  for  the  taxes  lost 
in  this  way  each  National  Forest  pays  to  each 
county  in  proportion  to  the  area  of  the  National 
Forest  lands  located  in  that  county  a  sum  of  money 
equal  to  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  gross  receipts 
each  fiscal  year.  From  the  receipts  of  the  fiscal 
year  1917  this  amounts  to  about  $850,000.  It  is 


ADMINISTRATION  47 

provided  that  this  money  is  to  be  expended  for 
schools  and  roads  in  the  county  in  which  the  Na- 
tional Forests  lie.  Recently  a  law  was  passed  giv- 
ing the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  authority  to  ex- 
pend an  additional  10  per  cent,  of  the  National  For- 
est receipts  for  the  construction  of  roads  and  trails 
for  the  benefit  of  local  communities.  From  the 
fiscal  year  1917  this  amounts  to  about  $340,000. 
These  moneys  for  roads,  trails,  and  schools  are  of 
course  a  great  benefit  to  the  mountain  communities, 
since  usually  the  amount  of  taxable  property  in 
such  remote  localities  is  small  and  hence  the  amount 
of  taxes  received  is  small.  These  allotments  to  the 
counties  have  helped  to  develop  the  communication 
systems  of  local  communities  and  have  also  made 
the  National  Forests  more  accessible  and  useful. 

THE  EQUIPMENT  AND  SUPPLIES  FOR  THE  NATIONAL 

FORESTS 

The  Property  Auditor  and  Property  Clerk. 
The  depot  for  equipment,  supplies,  and  blank  forms 
is  located  at  Ogden,  Utah,  and  this  office  furnishes 
all  the  Forests  in  all  the  districts  with  most  of  the 
equipment  necessary.  The  record  of  the  prop- 
erty of  the  United  States  in  the  custody  of  the  For- 


48          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

est  Service  is  kept  by  a  man  called  the  Property 
Auditor.  Requisitions  for  supplies  and  equipment 
are  made  by  the  Forest  Supervisor  to  the  Property 
Clerk.  Government  property  is  considered  ex- 
pendable or  non-expendable  depending  upon  its 
character.  Each  Forest  has  a  Property  Custodian 
who  has  charge  of  all  the  property  assigned  to  the 
Forest.  When  property  is  received  from  the 
Property  Clerk  or  if  property  is  transferred  from 
one  forest  officer  to  another,  the  Property  Custo- 
dian must  note  the  change  on  his  records. 

Blank  Forms.  The  blank  forms  which  are  sup- 
plied by  the  Property  Clerk  are  printed  standard 
forms  used  in  issuing  permits,  making  contracts, 
reports,  examinations,  timber  sale  agreements,  in 
short,  those  used  in  almost  every  business  transac- 
tion of  the  Forest  Service.  Even  timber  estimates, 
tree  measurements,  and  other  similar  public  records 
are  kept  on  standard  printed  forms  for  permanent 
uniform  record. 

Supplies.  Supplies  such  as  stationery,  type- 
writers, pencils,  ink,  notebooks,  paper  for  map 
work,  compasses,  measuring  tapes,  and  a  host  of 
other  articles  are  furnished  upon  requisition  by  the 
Property  Clerk.  Equipment  such  as  filing  cases, 


ADMINISTRATION  49 

tables,  chairs,  typewriters,  tree-measuring  instru- 
ments, tents,  cooking  utensils,  surveying  instru- 
ments, snow  shoes,  skiis,  knapsacks,  water  buckets, 
canteens,  kodaks,  and  many  other  forms  of  equip- 
ment are  furnished  by  the  Property  Clerk,  although 
in  cases  of  emergency  some  of  these  things  may  be 
purchased  locally  by  Forest  officers  by  the  authority 
of  the  Forest  Supervisor. 


NATIONAL  FOREST  IMROVEMENTS 

The  Need  of  Improvements.  It  is  but  natural, 
from  their  situation,  that  the  National  Forests  rep- 
resent pioneer  conditions ;  conditions  tfeat  one  might 
expect  to  find  in  a  wild,  rugged,  mountainous  coun- 
try. This  was  true  to  an  extreme  degree  when  the 
National  Forests  were  first  established  and  it  is  true 
in  a  very  large  degree  even  to-day,  since  the  amount 
of  time  and  money  which  it  will  be  necessary  to 
expend  on  the  construction  of  improvements  on  the 
155,000,000  acres  of  National  Forests  is  something 
enormous.  For  a  long  time  to  come,  then,  the  Na- 
tional Forests  will  need  improvements  in  order  to 
make  them  secure  against  fire  and  in  order  to  make 
the  resources,  now  locked  up,  available.  Proper 
protection  and  the  fullest  use  of  National  Forest 


50          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

resources  depend  mainly  upon  facilities  for  trans- 
portation, communication,  and  control.  All  parts 
of  the  National  Forests  should  be  accessible  by 
roads  and  trails;  there  should  be  telephone  com- 
munication between  settlements  and  Forest  officers' 
headquarters  and  with  the  lookout  stations ;  and  in 
most  cases  suitable  living  accommodations  must 
be  provided  for  the  field  force.  For  the  fullest  use 
of  the  forage  resources,  water  for  the  live  stock  must 
be  developed  and  range  fences  constructed;  to  re- 
duce the  hazard  and  the  cost  and  difficulty  of  con- 
trolling iferest  fires,  firebreaks  and  other  works 
•jtffe 

must  be  conljfcjted. 

Transporta^pn  Facilities.  Adequate  facilities 
for  travel  and  transportation  are  of  first  import- 
ance. Steam  roads,  electric  roads,  and  boat  lines 
are  utilized  in  the  National  Forest  transportation 
system  as  well  as  the  existing  roads  and  trails. 
Added  to  this,  new  roads  and  trails  are  being  con- 
structed every  year  to  complete  the  already  existing 
network. 

The  need  for  new  roads  and  trails  depends  upon 
the  number  of  them  already  existing,  the  value  of 
the  resources  that  it  is  necessary  to  make  accessible, 
the  fire  liability,  and  the  amount  of  unrealized  rev- 


Figure  13.     A  forest  fire  lookout  tower  on  Leek  Springs  Mountain. 
Eldorado  National  Forest,  California 


ADMINISTRATION  51 

enues  due  to  lack  of  transportation  facilities.  If 
valuable  grazing  land  or  timber  land  can  be  made 
accessible  there  is  good  reason  for  building  a  new 
road.  In  many  cases  roads  and  trails  are  built  to 
facilitate  the  protection  of  large  remote  areas  from 
fire.  Such  areas  may  have  large  bodies  of  valu- 
able timber  which  if  destroyed  by  forest  fires  would 
involve  a  heavy  loss.  Even  aside  from  valuable 
timber  on  an  area,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  when  a 
forest  fire  breaks  out  to  get  to  it  with  men  and  fire- 
fighting  equipment  in  the  shortest  possible  time 
before  it  spreads.  If  the  fire  gets  to  be  a  large 
one,  many  men  with  provisions,  tents,  fire-fighting 
tools,  and  other  equipment  must  be  transported  to 
the  scene  of  the  fire.  Any  delay  in  the  transporta- 
tion of  these  things  may  prove  fatal  and  may  result 
in  an  uncontrollable  conflagration. 

The  transportation  system  that  is  proposed  for  a 
National  Forest,  if  the  one  that  exists  is  inadequate, 
is  usually  planned  many  years  ahead.  The  ulti- 
mate or  ideal  system  is  always  kept  in  mind  so  that 
every  mile  of  road  or  trail  that  is  constructed  is 
made  a  part  of  it.  If  not  enough  money  is  avail- 
able for  a  good  road,  a  trail  is  built  along  the  line 
of  the  proposed  road.  Later  this  trail  is  widened 


52          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

into  a  permanent  road.  The  Engineer  connected 
with  each  District  Office  usually  has  charge  of  laying 
out  big  road  projects.  A  few  miles  of  permanent, 
good,  dirt  road  with  good  grade  is  always  preferred 
to  many  miles  of  poor  road  with  heavy  grade  and 
improper  drainage.  A  road  and  trail  system  is 
planned  for  each  National  Forest  which  will  event- 
ually place  every  portion  of  the  Forest  within  a 
distance  of  at  least  7%  miles  of  a  wagon  road.  A 
pack-train  can  then  transport  supplies  from  the 
point  to  which  they  are  delivered  on  the  wagon 
road  to  any  field  camp  and  return  in  a  single  day. 

In  trail  and  road  construction  it  is  very  often 
necessary  to  build  bridges.  Sometimes  a  very  sim- 
ple log  bridge  meets  the  need,  but  in  bridging  many 
large  mountain  torrents,  which  become  very  high 
and  dangerous  in  the  spring,  large  bridges  are 
necessary.  Cable  suspension  bridges  and  queen 
and  king  truss  bridges  are  built  where  occasion 
arises  for  them,  but  only  after  being  planned  in 
detail  and  after  the  District  Forester  has  approved 
their  design  and  method  of  construction. 

Very  often  navigable  streams  and  lakes  are  used 
as  a  part  of  the  transportation  system  on  a  Na- 
tional Forest.  On  the  Tahoe  National  Forest  in 


ADMINISTRATION  58 

California  launches  are  operated  by  the  Forest 
Service  on  Lake  Tahoe  to  patrol  the  region  around 
the  lake  for  forest  fires.  Ferries,  boats,  and 
launches  belonging  to  private  companies  or  indi- 
viduals are  used  by  agreement  or  if  necessary  are 
bought  by  the  Service  from  the  Improvement 
funds.  Speeders,  motor  cars,  and  hand  cars  on 
railroads  or  logging  roads  are  often  used  when  an 
agreement  has  been  made  with  the  company.  In 
this  way  railroads  are  made  a  part  of  the  transpor- 
tation system  of  the  Forest. 

Communication  Facilities.  The  system  of  com- 
munication on  the  National  Forests  is  scarcely  less 
important  than  the  system  of  transportation.  This 
system  includes  telephone  lines,  signal  systems,  and 
mail  service.  The  telephone  system,  as  can  be 
readily  seen,  is  of  the  utmost  importance  for  the 
transaction  of  all  kinds  of  National  Forest  busi- 
ness. In  case  a  Forest  Ranger  wishes  to  speak  to 
his  Supervisor  about  controlling  a  large  fire,  it 
makes  a  great  difference  whether  he  can  talk  to 
him  over  the  telephone  or  whether  he  must  send  a 
messenger  on  horseback  perhaps  60  or  70  miles. 
In  the  former  case  practically  no  time  is  lost,  in 
the  latter  it  would  take  at  least  two  days  for  the 


54         OUR  NATIOXAL  FORESTS 

messenger  to  reach  the  Forest  Ranger,  and  in  the 
meantime  the  fire  would  continue  to  rage  and 
spread. 

In  the  absence  of  a  telephone  system  a  signal 
system  is  used.  The  one  probably  used  the  most 
in  forest  fire  protection  work  is  the  heliograph,  by 
which  code  messages  are  sent  from  one  point  to 
another  by  means  of  a  series  of  light  flashes  on  a 
mirror.  The  light  of  the  sun  is  used  and  the  flashes 
are  made  by  the  opening  and  closing  of  a  shutter 
in  front  of  the  mirror.  Very  often  these  helio- 
graph stations  are  located  on  mountain  tops  in  the 
midst  of  extremely  inaccessible  country.  Where 
there  are  a  number  of  these  stations  at  least  one  is 
connected  by  telephone  to  the  Forest  Supervisor's 
office.  When  the  Forest  officer  at  the  telephone 
gets  a  heliograph  message  about  a  certain  fire  he 
immediately  telephones  the  news  directly  to  the 
Forest  Ranger  in  whose  district  the  fire  is  located, 
or  if  he  does  not  happen  to  be  in  direct  communi- 
cation with  the  Forest  Ranger  he  notifies  the  Forest 
Supervisor,  who  then  notifies  the  officer  concerned. 
Of  course  it  is  all  prearranged  who  should  be  noti- 
fied in  case  a  fire  is  reported  to  the  heliograph  man. 

Unfortunately  it  has  been  found  that  this  system 


Figure  15.  A  typical  view  of  the  National  Forest  country  in  Mon- 
tana. Forest  Service  trail  up  Squaw  Peak  Patrol  Station,  Cabinet 
National  Forest. 


ADMINISTRATION  55 

of  communication  is  not  satisfactory  even  under 
favorable  conditions.  This  system  depends  upon 
direct  sunlight;  without  it  is  useless.  When  there 
is  much  smoke  in  the  air  it  is  also  of  uncertain 
value.  The  heliograph  system  has  perhaps  reached 
its  greatest  development  upon  the  California  Na- 
tional Forest,  but  even  here  experience  has  shown 
that  it  is  only  a  temporary  makeshift  and  the  plan 
is  to  replace  it  by  a  telephone  system  as  soon  as 
possible. 

The  Forest  Supervisor,  especially  in  his  summer 
headquarters,  depends  directly  upon  the  mail  serv- 
ice for  communication  with  the  District  Forester 
and  the  outside  world.  In  many  cases  the  fact  that 
the  Forest  Supervisor  has  his  headquarters  in  a 
small  mountain  community  in  the  summer  has 
made  it  possible  for  that  community  to  receive  a 
daily  mail  service  or  mail  at  least  three  times  a  week. 
When  the  Forest  Supervisor  becomes  satisfied  that 
mail  service  is  desirable  in  certain  mountain  com- 
munities he  investigates  local  settlers'  needs  for 
mail  facilities ;  or  he  may  cooperate  with  the  people 
in  the  nearest  village  who  are  petitioning  for  mail 
service.  Often  his  influence  proves  the  deciding 
factor  in  getting  it. 


56          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

As  I  have  said  before,  telephone  communication 
is  indispensable  to  fire  protection  and  to  quick  and 
efficient  methods  of  conducting  National  Forest 
business.  Not  only  do  Forest  Service  lines  enter 
into  the  National  Forest  telephone  system  but  all 
private  lines  are  also  made  use  of.  By  cooperative 
agreements  with  private  companies  the  National 
Forest  lines  are  used  by  private  companies,  in  re- 
turn for  which  private  lines  are  used  by  the  Forest 
Service.  In  this  way  a  complete  network  of  tele- 
phone lines  is  established  connecting  not  only  the 
Forest  Supervisor  with  all  his  Rangers  and  his  for- 
est fire  lookout  stations,  but  also  connecting  each 
one  of  these  with  local  communities  and  the  large 
towns  at  a  distance.  Thus,  when  a  forest  fire  occurs 
and  the  available  local  help  is  not  sufficient  to  con- 
trol the  fire  the  telephone  system  is  put  to  use  to  call 
help  from  the  nearest  villages  and  towns. 

Grazing  Improvements.  It  is  often  necessary 
for  the  complete  and  economical  use  of  the  forage 
on  a  National  Forest  to  cooperate  with  the  local 
stockmen  to  develop  range  by  constructing  im- 
provements. Water  may  have  to  be  developed; 
fences,  corrals,  bridges,  trails,  and  other  works  may 
have  to  be  constructed.  Often  cattle  belonging  to 


ADMINISTRATION  57 

different  stockmen  are  grazed  on  adjacent  areas 
which  are  not  separated  by  natural  boundaries  such 
as  rivers,  ridges,  or  swamps.  If  there  is  no  obstacle 
to  prevent  the  cattle  from  drifting  from  one  range 
into  another,  a  drift  fence  is  built,  thus  definitely 
separating  one  stockman's  range  from  the  other. 
Often  good  range  would  remain  unused  on  account 
of  lack  of  water  altogether  or  on  account  of  lack  of 
water  during  the  dry  season  only.  In  this  case  the 
Forest  Service  usually  cooperates  with  the  stock- 
men to  provide  water.  Roads,  trails,  and  bridges 
are  often  necessary  to  enable  sheep  and  cattle  to 
reach  range  lands. 

Protective  Improvements.  Ranger  stations, 
cabins,  lookout  stations,  firebreaks  and  similar 
works  are  required  to  protect  the  forests  from  fire 
and  are  known  as  protective  improvements.  Build- 
ings are  constructed  for  the  field  force  to  afford 
necessary  shelter  and  to  furnish  an  office  for  the 
efficient  transaction  of  business.  Land  is  often 
cultivated  for  the  production  of  forage  crops  and 
fences  are  built  to  insure  necessary  pasturage  for 
live  stock  used  by  the  Forest  officers  in  their  work. 
The  buildings  may  be  substantial  houses  to  be  used 
throughout  the  year  or  they  may  be  merely  such 


58          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

structures  as  will  afford  the  necessary  shelter  and 
domestic  conveniences  for  Forest  officers  in  the 
summer.  These  summer  camps  are  constructed 
where  needed  for  the  use  of  patrolmen,  officers  en- 
gaged in  timber  sale  work  or  at  such  points  as  will 
serve  the  needs  of  officers  traveling  through  the 
forest.  Barns,  sheds,  and  other  small  structures 
are  constructed  at  the  Ranger's  headquarters  when 
they  are  needed.  Office  buildings  are  also  con- 
structed for  the  use  of  Forest  Rangers  or  for  sum- 
mer headquarters  of  the  Forest  Supervisor. 

Appropriations  for  Improvement  Work.  The 
money  for  the  construction  of  National  Forest  im- 
provements is  secured  from  various  sources.  The 
annual  Forest  Service  appropriation  usually  carries 
a  considerable  sum  for  this  purpose.  In  the  fiscal 
year  1918  $450,000  has  been  appropriated  for  this 
work,  which  divided  among  the  147  National  For- 
ests gives  an  average  only  of  about  $3,000  per  For- 
est. This  is  really  a  very  small  sum  considering 
the  size  of  the  average  National  Forest.  Fortu- 
nately there  are  other  appropriations  and  funds  and 
each  year  sees  more  money  available  for  this  most 
important  work.  Under  the  law  25  per  cent,  of  the 


Figure  17.  A  forest  fire  lookout  station  on  the  top  of  Lassen  Peak, 
elevation  10,400  feet,  Lassen  National  Forest,  California.  This  cabin 
was  first  erected  complete  in  a  carpenter's  shop  in  Red  Bluff,  about 
50  miles  away.  It  was  then  taken  to  pieces  and  packed  to  the  foot 
of  Lassen  Peak.  On  the  last  two  miles  of  its  journey  it  was  packed 
piece  by  piece  on  forest  officers'  backs  and  finally  reassembled  on  the 
topmost  pinnacle  of  the  mountain.  Photo  by  the  author. 

Figure  18.  Forest  officers  and  laborers  building  a  wagon  road 
through  trap  rock.  Payette  National  Forest,  Idaho. 


ADMINISTRATION  59 

receipts  are  paid  to  the  States  in  which  the  National 
Forests  are  located  to  be  expended  for  roads  and 
schools.  The  amount  to  be  paid  to  the  States  in 
this  way  from  the  receipts  in  1917  is  about  $848,- 
874.00.  By  the  acts  of  Congress  organizing  them 
as  States,  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  also  receive 
for  their  schools  funds  an  additional  share  of  the 
receipts  based  on  the  proportion  that  their  school 
lands  within  the  National  Forests  bear  to  the  total 
National  Forest  area  in  the  States.  The  approxi- 
mate amounts  due  on  account  of  the  receipts  for 
1917  are  $42,844.80  to  Arizona  and  $18,687.56  to 
New  Mexico.  Congress  has  also  provided  that  10 
per  cent,  of  the  receipts  shall  be  set  aside  as  an 
appropriation  to  be  used  under  the  direction  of  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  for  road  and  trail  build- 
ing in  National  Forests  in  cooperation  with  state 
authorities  or  otherwise.  The  amount  thus  appro- 
priated on  account  of  the  fiscal  year  1917  receipts  is 
$339,549.61.  This  added  to  the  amount  carried 
over  from  the  1916  receipts  fund,  $136,981.23,  and 
the  amount  appropriated  for  improvements,  in  the 
regular  Agricultural  Appropriation  Bill,  $450,- 
000.00,  brings  the  total  available  for  the  construe- 


60          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

tion  of  roads,  trails,  cabins,  bridges,  telephone  lines, 
etc.,  on  the  National  Forests  for  the  fiscal  year  1918 
to  $926,530.84. 

There  is  still  another  fund  recently  appropriated 
which  will  enable  roads  and  trails  to  be  built  on  a 
very  much  larger  scale  than  hitherto  has  been  possi- 
ble and  will  result  in  the  rapid  opening  of  forest 
regions  at  present  practically  inaccessible.  The 
Federal  Aid  Road  Act,  passed  by  Congress  in  1916, 
appropriated  ten  million  dollars  for  the  construc- 
tion and  maintenance  of  roads  and  trails  within 
or  partly  within  National  Forests.  This  money 
becomes  available  at  the  rate  of  a  million  dollars  a 
year  until  1927.  In  general,  the  States  and  counties 
are  required  to  furnish  cooperation  in  an  amount 
at  least  equal  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  estimated  cost  of 
the  surveys  and  construction  of  projects  approved 
by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture.  The  apportion- 
ment among  the  States  is  based  on  the  area  of  Na- 
tional Forest  lands  in  each  State  and  the  estimated 
value  of  the  timber  and  forage  resources  which  the 
Forests  contain. 

The  total  amount  from  all  sources  available  for 
roads,  trails,  and  other  improvements  on  the  Na- 


ADMINISTRATION  61 

tional  Forests  during  the  fiscal  year  1918  is  there- 
fore $1,926,530.84. 

THE  CLASSIFICATION  AND   CONSOLIDATION  OF 
NATIONAL  FOREST  LANDS 

The  classification  and  consolidation  of  National 
Forest  lands  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  to 
their  proper  administration  and  protection.  If  all 
the  lands  within  the  Forests  are  to  be  put  to  their 
highest  use  for  the  permanent  good  of  the  whole 
people  the  lands  inside  of  their  boundaries  must  be 
classified  and  permanent  boundaries  established  for 
each  Forest.  Through  this  kind  of  work  the  Na- 
tional Forests  gain  in  stability.  The  classification 
and  segregation  of  the  agricultural  lands  is  most 
important,  for  these  lands  are  open  to  entry  under 
the  Forest  Homestead  Act. 

Land  Classification.  The  land  classification 
work  is  organized  in  the  Washington  and  District 
Offices  under  the  Branch  of  Lands.  Crews  of  men 
are  sent  out  from  the  District  Offices  and  the  work 
of  classification,  carefully  planned  ahead,  is  done  by 
projects,  that  is,  large  contiguous  areas  are  exam- 
ined together.  For  instance,  the  Hat  Creek  Proj- 


62          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

ect  on  the  Lassen  National  Forest  consisted  of  a 
number  of  large  areas  containing  scattered  parcels 
of  agricultural  lands  along  the  Hat  Creek  valley 
in  that  Forest.  For  the  classification  of  the  lands 
on  a  big  project  a  surveyor  and  a  lineman,  one  or 
more  timber  cruisers,  and  an  expert  from  the  Bu- 
reau of  Soils  constitute  the  crew.  As  a  result  of 
this  work  over  1,100  individual  tracts  within  the 
Forests  were  made  available  for  entry  under  the 
Forest  Homestead  Act  during  the  fiscal  year  1916, 
because  this  land  was  found  to  have  a  greater  value 
for  growing  agricultural  crops  than  for  growing 
timber.  Under  this  same  policy  since  1912  about 
12,000,000  acres  were  eliminated  from  the  Forests, 
partly  because  they  were  of  greater  value  for  agri- 
cultural use,  or  because  they  were  not  suited  for  the 
purposes  for  which  the  National  Forests  were  cre- 
ated. Up  to  June  30,  1917,  127,156,610  acres  of 
National  Forest  land  have  been  examined  and  clas- 
sified. Such  work  as  this,  once  and  for  all  time, 
will  settle  the  controversy  now  and  then  waged  in 
Congress  by  certain  Congressmen  that  the  National 
Forests  have  large  and  valuable  tracts  of  agricul- 
tural lands  locked  up  within  their  boundaries  and 
therefore  should  be  abolished,  or  turned  over  to  the 


ADMINISTRATION  63 

States,  or  equally  radical  disposition  made  of  them. 
Such  Congressmen  usually  are  working  for  some 
predatory  private  interests  who  want  to  secure  the 
great  wealth  in  the  National  Forests  that  is  being 
wisely  conserved  for  the  people. 

The  Consolidation  of  National  Forest  Lands. 
There  has  also  been  a  great  need  for  consolidating 
the  National  Forest  lands  where  these  were  inter- 
spersed with  private  or  state  lands.  Congress  has 
recognized  this  need  and  from  time  to  time  has 
granted  authority  to  exchange  lands  with  private 
owners  or  States  where  such  an  exchange  would  be 
advantageous  to  the  Government  through  the  re- 
sulting consolidation  of  holdings.  Thus  by  getting 
the  government  lands  into  a  more  compact  body 
their  administration  and  protection  are  materially 
facilitated  in  many  ways. 

Before  any  exchange  is  made  it  must  be  ascer- 
tained that  the  land  which  the  Government  is  to 
receive  has  equal  value  with  that  relinquished,  also 
that  the  land  is  chiefly  valuable  for  the  production 
of  timber  and  the  protection  of  stream  flow.  Re- 
cent additions  to  the  Whitman  National  Forest  in 
Oregon  consisted  of  privately  owned  cut-over  tim- 
berland  rapidly  reproducing  to  valuable  timber 


64         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

trees.     Title  to  this  will  be  secured  by  exchange  for 
government  owned  lands. 

HOW  YOUNG  FORESTS  AR,E  PLANTED   TO  REPLACE 
THOSE  DESTROYED   BY   FIRE 

Reforestation  and  the  Timber  Supply.  More 
than  15,000,000  acres  of  National  Forest  lands 
which  are  capable  of  producing  timber  and  valuable 
chiefly  for  that  purpose  have  been  denuded  of  their 
original  tree  growth.  These  lands  are  not  adapted 
to  agriculture  and  possess  but  a  small  value  for 
grazing.  In  their  present  condition  they  are  prac- 
tically unproductive  barrens. 

It  is  probable  that  one-half  of  this  area  will  re- 
forest itself  naturally  through  the  reseeding  of 
burns,  and  the  encroachment  of  tree  growth  upon 
natural  openings,  parks,  grass  lands,  and  brush 
lands.  This  natural  extension  of  the  forest  on  such 
areas  is  progressing  at  the  estimated  rate  of  150,000 
acres  annually.  The  remaining  half  of  the  de- 
nuded area,  7,500,000  acres,  must  be  reforested  by 
artificial  means.  This  land  is  unquestionably 
adapted  to  growing  timber  and  useful  to  the  nation 
primarily  for  that  purpose.  Every  year  that  it  lies 
idle  the  country  suffers  a  great  financial  loss,  for 


ADMINISTRATION  65 

such  an  immense  area  is  capable  of  growing  at  least 
three-quarters  of  a  billion  feet  of  timber  annually. 
It  was  recently  estimated  that  the  timberlands  on 
the  National  Forests  are  producing  between  five 
and  six  billion  feet  of  lumber  annually  by  growth. 
The  complete  restocking  of  the  areas  now  denuded 
or  sparsely  timbered  will  increase  the  annual  pro- 
duction of  wood  at  least  25  per  cent.,  an  item 
certainly  worth  considering. 

Reforestation  and  Water  Supply.  Even  more 
important  than  the  value  of  the  timber  which  is  lost 
annually  is  the  part  which  these  large  areas  play  in 
the  conservation  of  water  supply.  Most  of  this 
area  is  on  the  watersheds  of  western  streams  and 
rivers  and  the  fact  that  it  is  denuded  is  a  dangerous 
menace  to  the  equable  flow  of  the  rivers  which  drain 
those  areas.  The  National  Forests  contain  over 
1,175  watersheds  which  supply  many  municipalities, 
324  water-power  projects,  and  1,266  irrigation 
projects,  aside  from  many  other  outside  power  and 
irrigation  projects  which  are  fed  by  watersheds 
within  the  Forests.  The  cities  of  Salt  Lake  City, 
Utah;  Denver  and  Colorado  Springs,  Colorado; 
Portland,  Oregon,  and  Seattle,  Washington,  all  de- 
rive their  municipal  water  supply  from  streams  aris- 


66         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

ing  in  the  National  Forests.  The  proposed  water 
system  for  the  city  of  San  Francisco,  California,  is 
also  to  be  taken  from  the  National  Forest  streams. 
A  few  years  ago  planting  was  undertaken  on  the 
watershed  of  the  Colorado  Springs,  Colorado,  reser- 
voir. This  water  supply  is  worth  annually  from 
$80,000  to  $100,000.  Besides  this  the  2,000  horse- 
power hydro-electric  plants  are  valued  at  $40,000 
and  the  40,000  undeveloped  horsepower  are  said  to 
have  an  additional  value  of  $400,000,  making  the 
total  value  of  the  watershed  more  than  $500,000, 
with  the  probability  that  a  greater  water  supply 
having  a  far  greater  value  will  be  needed  as  the  city 
grows. 

And  there  are  many  evidences  that  the  people  of 
the  West  have  begun  to  realize  that  the  National 
Forests  are  the  key  to  the  entire  water-supply  situ- 
ation in  the  West  no  matter  for  what  purpose  the 
water  is  used.  The  public  consideration  now  being 
given  to  flood  control,  the  requests  from  many  west- 
ern cities  for  special  measures  to  protect  their  mu- 
nicipal water  supply,  the  concern  expressed  by  irri- 
gation associations  in  Colorado  and  elsewhere,  lest 
even  the  regulated  cutting  on  the  National  Forests 


Figure  19.  Drying  pine  cones  preparatory  to  extracting  the  seed. 
Near  Plumas  National  Forest,  California. 

Figure  20.  Extracting  tree  seed  from  the  cones.  The  dried  cones 
are  shaken  around  until  the  seeds  drop  out  through  the  wire  mesh 
which  forms  the  sides  of  the  machine. 


ADMINISTRATION  67 

may  reduce  stream  flow,  and  the  rapid  rate  at  which 
unused  reservoir  and  power  sites  in  the  Forests  are 
being  developed,  all  are  evidences  of  the  importance 
of  Forests  in  protecting  water  supplies.  Refor- 
estation is  essential  so  that  the  National  Forests 
can  effectively  discharge  this  function. 

Government  Reforestation  Policy.  The  duty  of 
the  Forest  Service  to  put  the  denuded  areas  which 
will  not  be  reforested  naturally  into  a  condition  of 
productivity  admits  of  no  further  argument.  But 
the  problem  is  not  so  easily  solved  as  it  is  made 
clear.  Under  the  semi-arid  conditions  prevailing 
on  many  National  Forests  this  work  involves  un- 
certainties and  unsolved  problems.  On  the  Na- 
tional Forests  artificial  reforestation  was  an  untried 
field  when  the  Forest  Service  entered  it.  The  Gov- 
ernment therefore  had  to  develop  its  own  practice 
in  the  face  of  a  great  variety  of  conditions,  largely 
unfavorable.  The  situation  still  calls  for  intensive 
experiments  to  develop  the  best  methods  from  the 
standpoint  of  both  cost  and  results.  More  than 
that,  it  calls  for  a  different  set  of  methods  for  each 
forest  region  of  the  West  which  has  its  peculiar 
trees,  climate,  and  soils.  Then,  lastly,  when  the 


68         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

proper  methods  have  been  demonstrated  by  experi- 
ment, the  new  methods  can  be  applied  on  a  large 
scale  with  a  very  good  chance  for  success. 

Therefore  intensive  experiments  must  come  first. 
Business  prudence  requires  the  development  of  all 
methods  in  detail  and  reasonable  certainty  as  to 
their  results  before  large  sums  are  expended  upon 
field  operations.  In  the  least  favorable  regions  like 
the  semi-arid  mesas  of  the  Southwest,  the  work  is 
restricted  for  the  present  to  small,  carefully  con- 
ducted experiments,  the  result  sought  being  relia- 
ble information  upon  how  to  proceed  rather  than 
the  reforestation  of  many  acres.  In  the  most  fa- 
vorable regions,  as  the  western  slopes  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  Cascade  Ranges,  the  results  al- 
ready obtained  have  been  so  excellent,  due  to  an 
unusual  combination  of  good  growing  conditions, 
that  operations  upon  a  larger  scale  have  been  justi- 
fied simultaneously  with  continued  intensive  inves- 
tigations. As  the  work  is  extended  into  each  new 
region  or  new  National  Forest,  the  most  favorable 
sites  are  always  chosen  first.  After  the  possibili- 
ties and  limitations  of  each  method  have  been  ascer- 
tained by  experience  under  the  best  conditions  of 
each  locality  the  work  can  either  be  intelligently 


ADMINISTRATION  69 

extended  or  restricted.  But  the  work  is  always 
conducted  from  the  standpoint  of  the  maximum  re- 
turn for  each  dollar  expended. 

In  accordance  with  the  policy  outlined  by  the 
Forest  Service  watersheds  used  for  municipal  sup- 
ply or  irrigation  continue  to  receive  first  considera- 
tion. Large  sums  are  not,  however,  being  spent  on 
such  watersheds  where  any  uncertainty  as  to  the 
outcome  exists;  that  is  before  successful  methods 
have  been  perfected  by  experiment.  In  addition  to 
watersheds,  reforestation  work  is  being  conducted 
for  the  primary  object  of  producing  timber  only 
where  climatic  conditions  and  other  factors  are  ex- 
tremely favorable.  As  far  as  possible  these  areas 
are  being  selected  with  reference  to  the  low  cost  of 
the  work,  natural  conditions  which  insure  rapid  tree 
growth,  and  urgent  local  need  for  additional  timber 
supplies.  These  favorable  conditions  generally  ob- 
tain in  Washington,  Oregon,  Idaho,  Montana,  Min- 
nesota, and  Michigan  and  it  is  in  these  States  that 
the  best  results  have  been  obtained.  In  California, 
Utah,  Nevada,  Colorado,  and  the  Southwest  the 
work  is  restricted  to  intensive  experiments  on  a 
small  scale,  until  successful  methods  of  meeting 
the  adverse  local  conditions  have  been  perfected. 


70         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

Methods  of  Reforestation.  Two  general  meth- 
ods of  reforestation  have  been  developed.  The 
first  is  called  the  direct  seeding  method,  in  which 
tree  seed  is  sown  upon  the  ground  with  or  without 
simple  forms  of  cultivation.  The  other  method  is 
the  planting  method  by  which  seedlings  are  grown 
in  nurseries  under  ideal  conditions  of  soil,  light, 
and  moisture  until  they  are  large  enough  to  be 
transplanted  and  stand  the  rigors  of  the  open  field. 
Direct  seeding,  where  successful,  is  the  cheaper 
method,  but  is  necessarily  limited  to  sites  whose 
soil  and  moisture  conditions  are  exceptionally  fa- 
vorable to  tree  growth.  The  inability  of  the  newly 
germinated  seedling  to  establish  itself  except  in 
comparatively  moist  soil  makes  the  success  of  this 
method  on  the  semi-arid  mesas  of  the  Southwest, 
for  example,  very  problematical,  especially  since 
these  localities  are  subject  to  long  dry  seasons.  In 
such  localities  the  use  of  the  direct  seeding  method 
must  be  restricted  to  experiments  designed  to  deter- 
mine the  exact  range  of  conditions  under  which  it 
is  feasible.  The  main  effort,  however,  of  the  For- 
est Service  has  been  given  to  direct  seeding  on  areas 
where  reasonable  success  appears  to  be  assured. 


Figure  21.  Preparing  the  ground  with  a  spring-tooth  harrow  for 
the  broadcast  sowing  of  tree  seeds.  Battlement  National  Forest, 
Colorado.  This  view  was  taken  at  approximately  10,000  feet  eleva- 
tion. Photo  by  the  author. 

Figure  22.  A  local  settler  delivering  a  load  of  Lodgepole  pine 
cones  at  the  seed  extractory,  for  which  he  receives  45  cents  per 
bushel.  Forest  officers  receiving  them.  Arapaho  National  Forest, 
Colorado. 


ADMINISTRATION  71 

The  planting  of  2  or  3  year  old  seedlings  or  trans- 
plants largely  overcomes  the  adverse  soil  and  moist- 
ure factors  which  appear  to  have  made  direct  seed- 
ing unsuccessful  in  many  localities.  This  method, 
which  is  the  general  practice  in  European  forestry, 
must  without  doubt  be  employed  to  reforest  a  conr 
siderable  portion  of  the  denuded  lands.  The 
growing  and  planting  of  nursery  stock  is  carried  on 
simultaneously  with  direct  seeding.  The  object  of 
this  is  to  ascertain  the  comparative  results  of  the 
two  methods,  the  sites  on  which  the  greater  success 
will  be  obtained  from  each,  and  the  proper  relation 
of  the  two  methods  in  the  future  development  of 
reforestation  work. 

Since  reforestation  work  was  begun  on  the  Na- 
tional Forests  about  135,500  acres  have  been  sowed 
or  planted.  The  larger  part  of  this  acreage 
was  reforested  by  direct  seeding.  Until  only  a  few 
years  ago  larger  areas  were  direct  seeded  each  year 
than  were  planted  to  nursery  stock,  but  at  the  pres- 
ent time  more  planting  is  being  done.  During  the 
fiscal  year  1916  about  7,600  acres  were  planted  and 
about  2,800  acres  were  seeded.  The  average  cost 
in  that  year  of  planting  was  about  $10.00  per  acre, 


72          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

that  of  the  seeding  was  about  $4.50  per  acre.  The 
1917  costs  were  slightly  higher,  due  to  the  increased 
cost  of  labor  and  supplies. 

The  reforesting  methods  of  the  Forest  Service 
mean  the  collection  of  large  quantities  of  seeds  and 
the  growing  of  large  quantities  of  small  trees  for 
planting.  Since  1911  the  Forest  Service  has  col- 
lected over  175,000  pounds  of  seeds  for  its  direct 
seeding  and  planting  work.  During  the  fiscal  year 
1916  the  Forest  Service  had  14  large  tree-nurseries 
and  7  small  ones,  which  had  in  them  over  37  million 
young  trees  which  would,  in  a  short  time,  be  planted 
in  the  field.  From  these  figures  it  is  readily  seen 
that  the  reforestation  work  on  the  National  Forests 
is  conducted  on  a  large  scale. 

Direct  Seeding  Work  on  the  "National  Forests. 
The  direct  seeding  work  on  the  National  Forests 
involves  many  more  problems  than  one  would  at 
first  thought  suppose.  Seed  must  be  collected  and 
extracted;  it  must  be  stored,  if  it  is  not  used  im- 
mediately; if  the  seed  is  sown  it  must  be  protected 
from  rodents  and  very  often  the  ground  must  be 
prepared  before  the  seed  is  sown. 

Seeds  are  collected  in  various  ways.  Often 
cones  are  purchased  at  advertised  rates  from  per- 


Figure  23.  In  the  forest  nursery  a  trough  is  often  used  for  sowing 
seed  in  drills.  The  seed  scattered  along  the  sides  of  the  trough  rat- 
tles into  position  at  the  bottom  and  is  more  even  than  when  distrib- 
uted by  the  ordinary  worker  at  the  bottom  of  the  trough.  Pike 
National  Forest,  Colorado. 

Figure  24.  Uncle  Sam  grows  the  little  trees  by  the  millions. 
These  will  soon  cover  some  of  the  bare  hillsides  on  the  National 
Forests  of  the  West. 


t-t 


ADMINISTRATION  73 

sons  who  make  a  business  of  seed  collecting.  The 
collectors  deliver  the  cones  to  a  specified  Ranger 
station  or  to  some  seed  extracting  plant.  But  such 
collectors  are  not  always  available.  Seed  is  col- 
lected by  Forest  officers  by  stripping  cones  directly 
from  standing  trees  or  from  those  felled  in  logging 
operations.  Large  quantities  are  also  gathered 
from  the  vast  stores  or  caches  assembled  by  squir- 
rels. 

Seed  extraction  is  usually  done  most  economi- 
cally by  experienced  Forest  officers.  It  requires 
drying  by  exposure  to  natural  or  artificial  heat  to 
open  the  cones ;  threshing  to  separate  the  seed  from 
the  scales  and  woody  portions  of  the  cone;  and 
cleaning  or  fanning  to  remove  chaff  and  dirt. 
Much  of  the  extraction  has  hitherto  been  done  in 
small  quantities  at  a  large  number  of  stations  and 
with  very  simple  home-made  appliances.  In  view 
of  the  large  amount  of  seed  which  must  be  handled 
each  year  the  cost  of  extraction  has  been  materially 
reduced  and  seed  of  higher  average  fertility  has 
been  obtained  by  concentrating  the  major  part  of 
the  work  at  central  seed-extracting  plants  equipped 
with  improved  machinery. 

A  problem  of  great  importance  from  the  stand- 


74         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

point  of  final  results  is  that  of  having  seed  avail- 
able at  the  season  of  the  year  when  it  is  needed. 
Past  experiments  have  shown  that  fall  sowing  is 
essential  to  success  in  most  parts  of  the  West  where 
extensive  seeding  projects  will  be  conducted.  Ex- 
perience has  also  shown  that  seed  on  a  large  scale 
cannot  be  extracted  in  time  for  use  in  the  same 
season.  Moreover,  every  year  is  not  a  good  seed 
year,  so  that  Forest  officers  must  take  advantage  of 
the  good  years  to  collect  large  quantities  and  store 
them  for  use  during  years  of  seed  shortage.  Pur- 
chased domestic  or  foreign  seed  cannot  be  used  to 
advantage  to  make  up  these  deficiencies  because  it 
is  sometimes  of  poor  quality  and  not  adapted  to  the 
climatic  conditions  in  which  it  must  be  sown.  For 
these  reasons  methods  had  to  be  devised  for  storing 
large  quantities  of  seeds  for  several  years  at  a  time 
and  in  such  a  manner  that  their  vitality  would  not 
be  impaired.  Many  storage  tests  have  been  made 
by  the  Forest  Service  to  determine  the  best  way  of 
storing  seeds.  The  tests  showed  that  the  sealed 
glass  jar  is  the  best  container  and  that  seed  must 
be  stored  either  in  air-tight  receptacles  or  at  low 
temperatures  to  be  kept  for  any  considerable  period 
without  loss  of  fertility. 


ADMINISTRATION  75 

Probably  the  greatest  obstacle  encountered  in  re- 
forestation by  direct  seeding  is  the  destruction  of 
the  seeds  by  rodents.  The  failure  of  many  direct 
seeding  projects  has  been  due  primarily  to  loss  from 
this  cause.  Failure  has  occurred  on  areas  of  prac- 
tically every  character  regardless  of  the  time  of  the 
year  the  seed  was  sown.  Success  has  been  en- 
countered only  where  recent  burns  had  largely 
eliminated  the  animals  either  by  outright  destruc- 
tion or  by  the  loss  of  food  supply.  The  rodents 
which  are  most  destructive  to  tree  seeds  are  the 
ground  squirrels,  the  chipmunks,  the  mice,  and  the 
gophers.  It  is  not  strange  that  they  should  seek 
out  the  seed  that  has  been  carefully  sown  by  the 
Forest  officers.  In  many  cases  these  seeds  are  their 
natural  food  and  they  are  wonderfully  diligent  and 
expert  in  searching  it  out. 

In  cooperation  with  the  Biological  Survey,  the 
Forest  Service  has  worked  on  the  problem  of  de- 
stroying the  rodents.  Many  methods  have  been 
tried  out  in  the  field.  The  free  use  of  grain  poi- 
soned with  strychnine  has  thus  far  produced  the 
best  results  and  has  reduced  the  loss  from  rodents 
sufficiently  to  secure  satisfactory  germination. 
The  successful  elimination  of  such  injury  appears 


76         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

to  lie  in  the  thorough  poisoning  by  this  method  of 
areas  to  be  seeded,  once  or  oftener  in  advance  of 
sowing. 

With  successful  germination  assured  by  the  col- 
lection of  good  seed  and  the  protection  of  it  after 
it  has  been  sowed  from  rodents,  the  next  problem 
lies  in  cheap  methods  of  cultivation  and  sowing. 
This  will  enable  the  young  seedling  to  develop  its 
root  system  early  enough  and  rapidly  enough  to 
withstand  the  first  annual  drought,  the  dominant 
feature  of  the  climate  of  all  the  western  National 
Forests. 

There  are  numerous  methods  used  in  sowing  tree 
seed  on  the  National  Forests.  Three  general 
methods  are  used  in  most  of  the  work.  Broadcast 
sowing  is  practiced  in  the  fall  and  spring  or  upon 
the  snow  in  the  winter,  both  on  ground  that  has 
not  been  prepared  and  on  soil  that  has  been  scari- 
fied by  rough  brush  drags,  harrowing,  disking,  or 
partial  or  complete  plowing.  In  seed-spot  sowing 
the  seed  is  planted  at  regular  intervals  in  small 
spots  where  the  soil  is  cleared  of  vegetation  and 
worked  up  loose  to  a  depth  of  from  5  to  6  inches. 
When  corn  planting  or  dibbling  is  practiced  the 
seed  is  thrust  into  the  soil  by  a  hand  corn-planter, 


ADMINISTRATION  77 

or,  in  the  case  of  large  nuts,  pressed  into  holes  made 
with  a  pointed  stick.  The  corn-planter  method  is 
often  combined  with  the  preparation  of  seed  spots 
or  the  plowing  of  single  furrows,  in  order  to  plant 
the  seed  in  loose  soil  free  from  vegetation. 

On  a  large  majority  of  the  Forests  broadcast 
seeding  on  unprepared  ground  has  not  succeeded. 
As  a  rule  satisfactory  stands  have  been  secured 
from  broadcasting  only  after  an  expensive  prelimi- 
nary cultivation  which  would  be  impracticable  in 
extended  operations  and  which  would  exceed  the 
cost  of  planting  with  nursery  stock.  But  broad- 
casting on  prepared  strips  and  upon  recent  burns 
has  given  some  success.  The  seed-spot  method  has 
been  most  successful  if  done  at  the  proper  season. 
Late  summer  and  early  fall  sowing  has  produced 
better  results  than  sowing  in  spring  or  winter.  As 
a  whole  direct  seeding  has  not  succeeded,  espe- 
cially when  the  results  and  costs  of  the  work  are 
compared  with  the  planting  of  nursery  stock. 
Planting  has  thus  far  yielded  better  results,  espe- 
cially on  the  less  favorable  areas.  Furthermore, 
from  the  standpoint  of  final  results  attained,  plant- 
ing has  actually  been  cheaper  than  seeding,  in  spite 
of  the  greater  initial  cost  of  planting.  While  the 


78         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

major  emphasis  in  reforestation  work  is  placed 
upon  planting,  considerable  seeding  is  being  done, 
but  it  is  confined  to  the  most  favorable  localities 
and  sites. 

Planting  on  the  National  Forests.  Reforesta- 
tion by  planting  young  trees  has  received  much 
attention  during  the  last  few  years  principally  be- 
cause it  has  produced  better  results.  Much  still 
remains  to  be  said  for  both  methods  and  future 
experiments  alone  can  decide  which  method  to  use 
in  a  specified  region  and  under  given  conditions  of 
climate  and  soil.  Usually  direct  seeding  has  been 
tried  first  in  any  given  locality  where  reforestation 
work  was  to  be  done.  In  fact  the  policy  of  the 
Forest  Service  in  artificial  reforestation  on  the 
National  Forests  has  been,  first,  to  conduct  experi- 
ments to  find  out  what  can  be  done  and  what  is  the 
best  way  to  do  it ;  second,  to  reforest  by  direct  seed- 
ing wherever  this  is  feasible;  and  third,  to  plant 
nursery  seedlings  where  direct  seeding  has  been 
found  too  uncertain. 

In  selecting  areas  for  planting,  preference  is 
usually  given  to  the  watersheds  of  streams  im- 
portant for  irrigation  and  municipal  water  supply 
and  to  land  which  is  capable  of  producing  heavy 


Figure  26.     A  view  of  seed  sowing  with  a  corn  planter.     San  Isabel 
National  Forest,  Colorado 

Figure   27.     Sowing   seed   along  contour   lines   on   the   slopes.     Pike 
National  Forest,  Colorado 


ADMINISTRATION  79 

stands  of  a  quick-growing  species  or  of  a  specially 
valuable  species.  Next  in  importance  are  areas 
which  offer  good  opportunities  for  object  lessons  to 
the  public  in  the  practice  of  forestry.  Some  areas 
offer  combinations  of  advantages.  For  instance,  a 
burned-over  tract  may  be  suitable  for  planting  to 
some  rapid-growing  species  which  is  also  valuable 
for  timber  and  at  the  same  time  may  be  situated  so 
that  it  will  serve  as  an  object  lesson  also.  It  is  on 
such  areas  in  general  that  reforestation  by  planting 
is  being  concentrated. 

While  the  reforestation  of  the  watersheds  of 
streams  important  for  irrigation  and  municipal 
water  supply  has  a  large  financial  value,  this  value 
is  hard  to  estimate  because  it  involves  not  actual 
cash  profit  but  loss  prevented.  But  when  a  favor- 
able site  is  planted  to  a  quick-growing,  valuable, 
species,  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  arrive  at  a  fair 
estimate  of  the  possible  profit  on  money  invested. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  under  many  conditions 
it  is  highly  profitable  to  reforest  waste  lands  on  the 
National  Forests  by  planting.  From  certain  ex- 
periments made  it  is  estimated  that  a  white  pine 
forest  artificially  established  on  a  second-class  forest 
soil  in  Minnesota,  will  yield  about  46,500  board  feet 


80          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

per  acre  in  50  years,  worth  at  least  $10  per  thou- 
sand feet,  or  $465  per  acre.  Figuring  the  cost  of 
planting  and  the  cost  of  care  and  protection  per 
acre  per  year  at  3  per  cent,  compound  interest  gives 
a  total  cost  of  $34.07  per  acre  at  the  time  the  timber 
is  cut  and  a  net  profit  of  $8.62  per  acre  per  year. 
Douglas  fir  in  the  Northwest  will  produce  81,000 
board  feet  in  80  years,  worth  at  least  $8.50  per 
thousand  feet.  After  deducting  all  expenses  this 
would  leave  a  net  profit  of  $555.30  in  80  years  or 
about  $6.94  per  acre  per  year.  These  profits  are 
indeed  large,  considering  that  the  land  is  not  ca- 
pable of  producing  cereal  or  vegetable  crops  profit- 
ably. And  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  all  the 
above  calculations  all  the  money  invested  is  earning 
3  per  cent,  compound  interest  and  that  the  net 
profits  are  the  earnings  in  excess  of  this  3  per  cent, 
interest. 

The  little  trees  that  are  set  out  on  the  National 
Forests  every  year  are  produced  in  large  nurseries, 
where  they  are  grown  by  the  millions.  In  these 
nurseries  the  little  trees  receive  the  most  expert  care 
from  the  time  the  seeds  germinate  until  the  time 
they  are  large  enough  to  withstand  the  rigors  of 
wind  and  weather  on  the  barren  hillsides  of  Uncle 


ADMINISTRATION  81 

Sam's  Forests.  The  seeds  are  first  carefully  sown 
in  seed  beds  and  left  to  develop  in  these  from 
one  to  three  years.  At  the  end  of  one  year  they 
may  be  transplanted  in  nursery  rows  where  they 
will  have  more  room  to  develop.  Rapidly  growing 
species  like  yellow  pine  are  kept  only  a  year  in  the 
seed  bed  and  perhaps  one  or  two  years  in  the  trans- 
plant beds;  but  slow  growing  species,  like  cedar, 
must  remain  in  the  seed  beds  two  years  and 
usually  two  years  in  the  transplant  beds.  All  this 
depends  upon  the  species  and  the  site  upon  which  it 
is  to  be  planted. 

If  my  reader  were  to  visit  the  Pikes  Peak  region 
during  spring  or  fall  he  would  doubtless  encounter 
large  gangs  of  men  planting  young  trees  on  the 
barren  mountain  slopes.  Under  the  proper  super- 
vision of  Forest  officers  some  of  the  men  will  be  seen 
digging  holes  with  a  mattock  while  others  are  com- 
ing directly  behind  them  with  bags  or  boxes  with 
wet  moss  or  burlap,  containing  small  trees.  These 
men  are  called  respectively  the  diggers  and 
planters.  Two  men  will  plant  from  500  to  1,000 
trees  a  day,  depending  upon  how  deep  the  holes 
must  be  dug  to  accommodate  the  roots,  whether  the 
ground  is  bare  or  covered  with  sod,  whether  the  land 


82          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

is  mountainous  or  level,  and  many  other  factors. 
In  this  way  Uncle  Sam  plants  his  denuded  areas 
in  the  Forests,  so  that  they  will  be  producing  timber 
for  future  generations  instead  of  useless  brush  or 
tree  weeds.  The  great  variety  of  climatic  and 
topographic  conditions  included  in  the  National 
Forest  area  makes  the  problem  of  tree  planting  in- 
finitely complex.  Nursery  stock  must  be  raised  in 
each  region  having  similar  climatic  conditions,  and 
in  each  of  these  regions  different  methods  of  plant- 
ing must  be  used,  depending  upon  local  conditions. 
The  semi-arid  mesas  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico 
present  different  planting  problems  from  the  humid 
forest  regions  of  Oregon  and  Washington;  the 
methods  used  in  the  sandhills  of  Nebraska  and  the 
sand  plains  of  Michigan  cannot  be  applied  in  full 
on  the  high  mountain  slopes  of  Colorado;  nor  are 
the  planting  problems  in  the  vast  chaparral  areas  of 
northern  California  anything  like  those  encountered 
in  the  mountains  of  Idaho,  or  in  the  prairie  States  of 
the  Middle  West,  or  in  the  Black  Hills.  Then, 
again,  the  reforestation  problems  of  the  chaparral 
fields  of  southern  California  are  more  perplexing 
than  any  I  have  mentioned  above. 


ADMINISTRATION  83 

THE  ORGANIZATION  AND   SCOPE  OF  FOREST  EXPERI- 
MENTS  AND    INVESTIGATIONS 

The  Need  of  Scientific  Experiments.  No  sci- 
ence can  make  progress  without  intensive  experi- 
ments and  investigations,  least  of  all  a  new  science 
like  forestry.  The  science  of  forestry  as  it  has 
developed  in  Europe  is  several  hundred  years  old, 
but  the  science  of  forestry  as  applied  to  American 
conditions  is  still  in  the  infancy  of  its  development 
— probably  not  over  20  years  old.  Therefore  we 
know  very  little  about  our  trees,  our  forests,  and  the 
wood  which  they  produce,  and  the  professional  for- 
esters who  handle  the  scientific  work  on  our 
National  Forests  are  very  much  handicapped.  To 
supply  the  needed  information  about  the  require- 
ments of  many  of  our  tree  species,  the  uses  to  which 
their  wood  can  be  put,  and  many  other  related  sub- 
jects, the  Forest  Service  has  established  8  Forest 
Experiment  Stations  (recently  reduced  to  6)  and 
one  Forest  Products  Laboratory.  It  has  become 
the  business  of  these  institutions  to  study  the  laws 
governing  the  life  of  the  tree  and  the  forest  and 
their  effect  upon  the  final  product — wood.  The 
Experiment  Stations  are  working  on  the  solution  of 


84          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

the  many  problems  which  confront  the  Forest  offi- 
cers in  the  management  and  the  protection  of  the 
National  Forests ;  while  the  Forest  Products  Labo- 
ratory was  organized  to  promote  the  most  profitable 
utilization  and  the  most  economical  disposition  of 
the  forest  products  of  the  National  Forests.  Both 
sets  of  institutions,  in  doing  this,  are  helping  mate- 
rially to  build  up  the  science  of  American  Forestry, 
which  even  to-day  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist. 

The  Science  of  Growing  Timber.  In  order  to 
better  understand  the  many  diversified  problems 
which  are  being  studied  at  the  Forest  Experiment 
Stations,  it  is  necessary  to  give  the  reader  a  few 
ideas  concerning  the  science  of  forest  ecology. 
This  science  is  the  basis  of  all  problems  dealing  with 
the  growing  of  timber  and  is  therefore  a  study  of 
the  utmost  importance  to  forestry.  Forest  ecology 
is  the  study  of  the  relations  of  trees  and  forests  to 
their  surroundings.  By  surroundings  (or  environ- 
ment) we  mean  all  the  factors  which  influence  their 
growth  and  reproduction,  such  as  soil  temperature, 
soil  moisture,  soil  texture,  rainfall,  light,  wind,  air 
temperature,  relative  humidity,  altitude,  slope,  ex- 
posure, and  surface.  Forests,  we  must  remember, 
are  not  warehouses  of  standing  logs;  they  are  not 


ADMINISTRATION  85 

merely  aggregations  of  individual  trees;  but  they 
are  complex  communities  of  living  organisms,  which 
are  affected  in  many  ways  by  climate  and  soil  and 
which,  in  turn,  affect  in  no  small  degree  the  climatic 
and  soil  conditions  in  their  immediate  vicinity.  The 
forester  cannot  treat  the  forest  as  an  aggregation 
of  individuals,  for  forests  have  laws  which  govern 
their  behavior  which  are  entirely  different  from 
those  that  govern  the  individual  tree.  Some  for- 
esters and  botanists  prefer  to  call  this  science  by 
the  name  of  "tree  sociology,"  and  they  compare  it 
with  human  sociology.  Individuals,  as  we  well 
know,  are  governed  by  different  natural  laws  than 
communities.  Just  so  with  trees  and  forests.  In 
order,  therefore,  to  grow  a  never-failing  supply  of 
timber  intelligently  and  economically  we  must  un- 
derstand these  complex  organisms  and  communities, 
we  must  study  their  behavior  under  different  soil 
and  climatic  conditions  and  ascertain  the  conditions 
under  which  they  grow  best.  Only  by  doing  this 
can  the  forester  achieve  all  the  objects  of  forestry, 
namely,  to  help  Nature  to  produce  more  and  better 
timber,  in  a  shorter  length  of  time  and  at  the 
smallest  possible  cost. 

The  experimental  work  of  the  Forest  Experi- 


86         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

ment  Stations  is  grouped  under  such  categories  as 
these:  dendrological  studies,  forestation  studies, 
studies  in  forest  influences,  studies  relating  to  forest 
management,  studies  in  forest  protection,  commer- 
cial tree  studies,  and  grazing  studies. 

Dendrological  Studies.  Dendrological  studies 
include  studies  in  tree  distribution  and  wood  identi- 
fication. For  each  tree  species  growing  in  the 
United  States  (and  there  are  about  500  of  them)  it 
is  desirable  to  know  its  geographical  distribution, 
its  commercial  distribution,  and  its  local  distribu- 
tion. The  first  of  these  deals  with  the  entire  range 
of  the  tree  by  geographical  divisions ;  the  second  of 
these  with  the  distribution  of  those  bodies  of  timber 
that  are  of  commercial  quantity  or  size ;  and  the  last 
deals  with  the  distribution  of  the  tree  by  local  di- 
visions, such  as  lowlands,  slopes,  ridges,  valleys, 
plateaus,  etc.  This  information  is  usually  placed 
on  maps  for  permanent  record.  Observations  by 
Forest  officers  on  the  many  National  Forests  are  re- 
corded by  them  and  at  the  first  opportunity  sent  to 
Washington.  Very  often  it  happens  that  the  range 
of  a  species  of  tree  is  considerably  extended  and 
that  a  tree  is  found  growing  in  a  locality  where  it 
was  never  reported  from  before.  The  identifica- 


ADMINISTRATION  87 

tion  of  woods  is  done  at  the  Forest  Products  Labo- 
ratory. The  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the 
woods  of  many  American  tree  species  have  been  de- 
termined. The  wood  of  different  trees  is  studied 
under  the  microscope  to  discover  in  what  way  it 
differs  from  other  woods  closely  related.  Many 
such  results  are  published  for  the  benefit  of  both 
the  lumber  dealer  and  the  general  public  in  the 
form  of  bulletins.  Both  the  subject  of  dyewoods 
and  that  of  the  many  woods  now  sold  as  mahogany 
have  been  investigated  in  this  way.  The  resulting 
data  have  been  used  by  many  companies  and  have 
helped  to  protect  the  public  from  frauds. 

Seed  Studies.  Experiments  in  reforestation 
are  grouped  under  seed  studies,  nursery  studies, 
and  sowing  and  planting.  Considerable  work  has 
been  done  in  developing  the  best  methods  of  seed- 
extraction.  Much  valuable  information  has  been 
gathered  on  the  largest  amount  of  seed  that  may  be 
extracted  from  pine  cones  of  different  species  per 
unit  of  time  at  different  degrees  of  temperature ;  the 
maximum  temperature  which  may  be  applied  to 
seeds  of  different  species  without  impairing  their 
vitality ;  the  germinating  power  of  seed  extracted  at 
different  temperatures;  the  comparative  length  of 


88          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

time  required  for  the  germination  of  seed  extracted 
with  or  without  artificial  heat;  and  the  most 
economical  type  of  seed-extracting  plant.  Studies 
have  been  made  upon  the  comparative  germina- 
tion of  tree  seeds  in  the  field  and  the  greenhouse. 
The  ultimate  success  of  the  plantations  being  estab- 
lished on  the  National  Forests  in  a  large  degree  de- 
pends upon  the  character  of  the  seed  used.  Hence 
studies  are  being  conducted  of  the  effect  of  altitude, 
soil,  age  of  the  tree,  density  of  stand,  insect  damage 
and  disease  infection,  and  other  factors  that  affect 
the  mother  tree,  upon  the  character  of  the  seed  col- 
lected from  those  trees,  and  the  growth  and  form 
of  the  resulting  seedling.  Also  tests  to  show  the 
effect  of  the  source  of  seed  on  the  form  and  growth 
of  young  seedlings  have  indicated  very  clearly  that 
with  all  species  the  seed  grown  in  the  locality  where 
the  trees  are  to  be  planted  give  as  a  rule  better  re- 
sults than  seed  imported  from  another  region. 

Nursery  Studies.  Nursery  studies  endeavor  to 
show  the  most  efficient  methods  for  growing  young 
trees  for  field  planting  for  each  species  of  trees. 
It  is  of  great  importance  to  know  how  much  seed  to 
sow  per  foot  in  the  nursery  beds ;  what  is  the  best 
time  (spring  or  fall)  for  sowing;  to  what  depth  the 


ADMINISTRATION  89 

seed  should  be  covered  in  order  to  give  the  highest 
germination;  whether  better  results  are  obtained  by 
drill  sowing  or  by  broadcast  sowing;  the  best 
methods  of  shading,  fertilizing,  watering,  and  culti- 
vating the  seed  beds;  the  methods  of  securing  the 
best  root  development  of  the  young  seedlings; 
the  best  time  and  method  of  transplanting  from  the 
nursery  beds  to  the  transplant  beds;  the  best 
methods  for  retarding  spring  growth  in  seedlings  to 
be  used  at  high  altitudes;  and  other  problems  of 
similar  nature. 

Forestation  Experiments.  Experiments  in  for- 
estation  have,  year  after  year,  proven  that  planting 
is  much  safer  than  direct  seeding  and  ultimately  less 
expensive.  For  this  reason  a  greater  emphasis  has 
been  placed  upon  planting  studies.  These  studies 
have  attempted  to  show  the  best  season  for  planting 
each  species;  the  best  methods  of  planting;  the 
most  advantageous  classes  of  stock  to  use;  and  what 
the  most  suitable  sites  are  for  each  species  of  tree. 

Studies  of  Forest  Influences.  Studies  on  the  in- 
fluence of  forests  upon  stream  flow  and  erosion  are 
attempting  to  furnish  important  data  for  American 
conditions  upon  this  subject.  At  the  Wagon 
Wheel  Gap  Forest  Experiment  Station  in  Colorado 


90          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

such  a  study  is  being  carried  on.  The  purpose  of 
the  study  for  the  first  two  or  three  years  has  been 
to  determine  the  character  of  the  two  streams  which 
are  to  be  measured.  The  forest  cover  on  the  two 
watersheds  is  practically  identical.  The  results  so 
far  obtained  indicate  that  the  influence  upon  the 
stream  flow  must  be  about  the  same  in  both  cases, 
and,  consequently,  a  comparison  of  these  streams 
after  the  denudation  of  one  watershed  will  be  a 
very  fair  test  of  the  influence  of  the  forest  cover 
upon  the  relative  height  of  the  flood  stage  and  low- 
water  stage,  the  amount  of  erosion,  and  the  rate  of 
melting  of  the  snow. 

Experimental  observations  which  have  been  con- 
ducted since  1908  at  the  various  Forest  Experiment 
'Stations  have  shown  that  the  forest  exercises  a  de- 
cided moderating  influence  upon  temperature  ex- 
tremes, wind  motion,  and  evaporation.  Likewise, 
the  presence  of  a  forest  cover  retards  the  melting  of 
snow  in  the  spring,  and  in  this  way  huge  snowbanks 
in  the  forests  feed  the  nearby  streams  until  late  in 
the  summer.  Forests  therefore  have  been  shown 
to  conserve  the  water  supply  and  also  causing  this 
water  to  run  off  slowly  rather  than  in  sudden  floods. 
Studies  have  also  been  conducted  on  determining 


Figure  29.  At  the  Fort  Valley  Forest  Experiment  Station,  Co 
conino  National  Forest,  Arizona.  A  typical  meteorological  station 
Forest  officer  measuring  precipitation.  Note  the  shelter  which  con- 
tains thermometers  and  also  the  electrically  equipped  instruments  to 
record  the  direction  and  velocity  of  the  wind. 

Figure  30.  Forest  officer  ascertaining  the  amount  of  evaporation 
from  a  free  water  surface.  Fort  Valley  Forest  Experiment  Station, 
flagstaff,  Arizona. 


ADMINISTRATION  91 

the  effect  of  cutting  timber  upon  the  climate  within 
the  forest. 

Meteorological  Observations.  The  climatic  re- 
quirements of  forest  types  have  been  studied  at  the 
Fremont  Experiment  Station  since  January  1, 
1910,  through  experimental  observations,  and  other 
stations  have  taken  up  the  same  problem  since  that 
date.  The  first  step  in  this  work  at  the  Fremont 
has  been  to  obtain  a  complete  meteorological  rec- 
ord as  a  basis  for  determining  what  climatic  condi- 
tions are  most  important  in  limiting  the  natural 
range  of  such  important  species  as  Yellow  pine, 
Douglas  fir,  and  Engelmann  spruce.  The  data 
collected  so  far  have  shown  that  soil  moisture  and 
soil  temperature  are  the  controlling  factors  in  de- 
termining the  existence  of  the  three  forest  types. 
It  has  also  been  shown  what  climatic  conditions 
each  of  the  three  types  of  forest  must  have  in  order 
to  succeed.  This  work  has  since  been  extended  to 
include  other  types  of  forest  and  a  meteorological 
station  has  been  established  at  timber  line  on  Pikes 
Peak.  This  station,  which  is  at  approximately 
11,500  feet,  is  equipped  with  self-recording  instru- 
ments to  measure  the  climatic  factors  which  obtain 
at  that  elevation  and  which  mark  the  uppermost 


92          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

altitudinal  limit  of  tree  growth  in  that  locality. 

Such  studies  as  these,  based  upon  systematic 
meteorological  observations,  have  an  important 
bearing  on  all  other  forest  problems.  The  data  se- 
cured in  this  way  especially  assist  the  technical 
foresters  in  solving  the  various  problems  in  forest 
management,  reforestation,  fire  protection,  and 
land  classification,  besides  giving  positive  knowl- 
edge of  the  environment  in  which  our  trees  live  and 
of  the  factors  affecting  their  growth  and  reproduc- 
tion. These  systematic  observations  are  of  prime 
importance  if  we  ever  hope  to  have  a  science  of 
American  Forestry. 

Forest  Management  Studies.  Experiments  in 
forest  management  are  carried  on  to  determine  the 
best  methods  of  cutting  National  Forest  timber  to 
secure  natural  reproduction  and  at  the  same  time 
to  improve  the  quality  and  productivity  of  the  re- 
maining stand.  These  studies  are  carried  on  by 
means  of  permanent  sample  plots,  on  which  all  the 
trees  are  carefully  measured  and  recorded.  First 
the  timber  is  cut  on  the  plots  under  different  sys- 
tems of  management,  or  thinnings  or  improvement 
cuttings  are  made.  An  exact  record  is  kept  of  the 
amount  of  timber  removed  and  of  the  size  and  dis- 


ADMINISTRATION  93 

tribution  of  the  remaining  trees.  Measurements 
taken  at  regular  intervals  show  the  precise  effect  of 
the  method  used  on  each  plot.  Close  observations 
of  the  reproduction  which  takes  place,  brush  and 
other  forms  of  cover  which  may  establish  themselves, 
and  changes  in  soil  conditions  are  recorded.  On 
similar  sample  plots  methods  of  brush  disposal, 
methods  of  marking  timber  for  cutting,  and  thin- 
ning methods  are  studied.  After  logging  there  are 
several  ways  in  which  the  resulting  slash  may  be  dis- 
posed, depending  upon  surrounding  conditions. 
In  some  localities  the  brush  must  be  burned  imme- 
diately on  account  of  the  fire  danger  which  its  pres- 
ence involves;  in  other  places  it  must  be  removed 
because  it  interferes  with  reproduction;  in  still 
other  places  the  brush  may  be  scattered  over  the 
area  because  there  is  little  fire  danger  and,  in  fact, 
the  brush  has  been  found  to  assist  and  protect  re- 
production. All  these  possibilities  must  be  deter- 
mined by  experiments.  Likewise  in  marking  tim- 
ber for  cutting  and  in  thinning  practice  various 
methods  are  possible,  depending  upon  circum- 
stances, the  most  important  of  which  are  the  re- 
quirements of  the  species  and  the  density  of  the 
forest. 


94         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

Other  management  studies  deal  with  the  deter- 
mination by  actual  measurement  of  the  volumes 
of  trees  and  stands,  and  the  growth  of  trees  and  the 
yields  of  whole  forests.  Reliable  growth  and  yield 
data  for  the  different  species  and  types  are  neces- 
sary to  properly  handle  timber  sales  as  well  as  for 
forest  management.  They  are  also  essential  for 
determining  damages  caused  by  fires  and  trespass. 

Forest  Protection  Studies.  Studies  in  forest 
protection  endeavor  to  find  the  best  methods  of 
protecting  the  National  Forests  from  fire,  grazing, 
disease,  insects,  wind,  snow,  hail,  and  animals. 
The  most  efficient  protection  of  the  National  For- 
ests from  fire  calls  for  an  accurate,  scientific  knowl- 
edge of  all  the  factors  that  enter  into  the  problem. 
Comprehensive  studies  are  undertaken  to  secure 
the  basis  for  a  more  scientific  method  of  distrib- 
uting National  Forest  fire-protecting  funds.  The 
aim  has  been  to  find  the  degree  of  intensiveness  in 
fire  protection  warranted  by  timber,  forage,  and 
watershed  values,  as  modified  by  their  susceptibility 
to  damage  by  fire.  Under  the  ideal  system  of  al- 
lotting fire-protecting  funds,  the  most  valuable  re- 
sources, which  at  the  same  time  are  most  in  danger 
of  destruction  by  fire,  should  receive  the  largest 


ADMINISTRATION  95 

amount  of  funds  and  therefore  the  greatest  amount 
of  protection.  Less  valuable  resources,  less  sus- 
ceptible to  fire  danger,  should  receive  protection  in 
proportion.  Other  classes  of  fire  protection  studies 
have  to  do  with  the  various  phases  of  fire  preven- 
tion, fire  detection,  and  fire  control.  Studies  have 
also  been  carried  on  to  determine  the  rapidity  with 
which  fire  spreads  in  different  forest  types,  and  un- 
der a  given  set  of  climatic  conditions. 

Protection  from  Grazing  Damage.  Studies  of 
the  effects  of  grazing  upon  the  natural  reproduc- 
tion of  forests  are  conducted  with  a  view  to  devising 
a  system  of  range  control  which  would  minimize 
such  injury  without  requiring  the  total  exclusion 
of  the  stock  from  the  range.  Studies  have  shown 
that  serious  damage  occurs  to  seedlings  under  four 
feet  in  height  during  the  dry  season,  on  areas  con- 
taining poor  forage,  or  which  have  been  overgrazed, 
or  where  there  was  little  or  no  underbrush.  It  was 
found  that  sheep  do  twice  as  much  damage  as 
cattle.  Some  of  the  measures  that  have  been 
adopted  to  lessen  the  injury  to  reproduction  by 
sheep  and  cattle  are:  the  revegetation  of  over- 
grazed areas,  reductions  in  the  amount  of  stock, 
provisions  for  the  better  distribution  of  stock  by 


96          OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

the  regulation  of  watering  places,  and  the  exclusion 
of  sheep  from  cut-over  areas  on  which  reproduction 
is  deficient  until  the  seedlings  reach  a  sufficient 
height  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  the  animals. 

Protection  from  Insects  and  Diseases.  In  co- 
operation with  the  Bureau  of  Entomology  and  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  the  Forest  Service  is 
conducting  a  large  number  of  studies  and  inves- 
tigations dealing  with  the  insects  and  diseases  that 
do  destructive  damage  to  forests.  The  direct  re- 
sult of  these  studies  will  be  the  gradual  eradication 
of  predaceous  insects  and  dangerous  tree  diseases 
from  the  valuable  timber  forests  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. Control  measures  already  taken  have 
shown  the  value  of  exact  scientific  information. 
On  the  Klamath  National  Forest  some  years  ago 
about  900  acres  were  treated  for  insect  infestation. 
The  cost  was  about  $3,000  and  the  amount  of  tim- 
ber saved  by  the  eradication  of  the  insects  was 
worth  over  $600,000.  Other  studies  are  carried  on 
to  identify  and  describe  certain  classes  of  insects, 
such,  for  instance,  as  those  that  destroy  the  seeds  of 
trees  in  the  cones.  The  various  families,  genera, 
and  species  of  forest  insects  are  studied  and  de- 
scribed, and  the  results  are  published  in  the  form 


ADMINISTRATION  97 

of  monographs.  Many  of  these  insects  are  diffi- 
cult to  identify  and  concerning  others  very  little  is 
known.  Investigations  on  tree  diseases  have  not 
made  such  good  progress,  because  tree  diseases  are 
much  more  difficult  to  control.  Tree  diseases,  like 
human  diseases,  must  be  prevented  instead  of  con- 
trolled. A  general  survey  of  the  tree  diseases 
prevalent  in  the  National  Forests  has  been  made, 
especially  in  California.  Further  studies  have 
brought  to  light  little  known  or  even  unknown  dis- 
eases. In  California,  studies  have  shown  that  a 
certain  relation  exists  between  old  age  and  disease. 
Incense  cedar,  for  example,  seems  to  become  in- 
fested after  it  reaches  maturity  at  an  age  of  about 
150  years. 

Tree  Studies.  Commercial  tree  studies  are 
made  of  important  tree  species.  The  results  are 
published  in  the  form  of  monographs  dealing  with 
the  range,  silvicultural  characteristics,  growth, 
yield  and  management  of  each  tree.  These  studies 
bring  together  all  the  important  facts  known  about 
the  tree  described,  such  as:  the  industrial  uses  of 
the  wood,  the  conditions  under  which  the  tree  suc- 
ceeds, the  rate  of  growth  in  different  situations, 
and  the  most  suitable  methods  of  management  to 


98         OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

secure  the  highest  returns.  Tables  are  included 
to  show  the  volume  of  the  trees  at  different  ages 
and  sizes,  in  cubic  feet,  in  cords,  in  board  feet,  etc. 
Studies  are  also  made  of  the  life  history  and  re- 
quirements of  important  forest  trees,  often  in  con- 
nection with  commercial  studies.  Such  studies 
cover:  local,  geographical,  and  commercial  occur- 
rence of  the  species,  the  species  which  are  asso- 
ciated with  it,  the  habit  of  the  tree,  its  soil  and  cli- 
matic requirements  for  germination  and  growth, 
and  the  various  matters  connected  with  its  repro- 
duction. Such  publications  as  these  give  the  Forest 
officers  much  valuable  information  about  the  trees 
with  which  they  are  dealing,  and  also  furnish  the 
only  sources  of  information  to  students  in  forest 
schools  on  the  characteristics  and  requirements  of 
the  trees  important  in  forestry  in  this  country. 

Grazing  Investigations.  Grazing  investiga- 
tions, being  intimately  connected  with  a  great 
national  industry,  have  received  a  considerable 
amount  of  attention.  These  studies  are  confined 
at  present  to  grazing  reconnoissance,  the  reseeding 
of  depleted  mountain  grazing  lands,  studies  in  the 
best  methods  of  handling  sheep  on  the  range, 
studies  of  the  effect  of  grazing  on  the  forest,  iden- 


ADMINISTRATION  99 

tifieation  of  range  plants,  and  the  systematic  elim- 
ination of  poisonous  range  plants  and  predatory 
animals. 

Grazing  reconnoissance  is  a  stock  taking  of  the 
forage  possibilities  of  a  certain  piece  of  range  land. 
This  work  is  usually  done  by  organized  parties, 
but  a  small  amount  is  done  also  by  Forest  officers  in 
spare  time.  This  study  aims  to  collect  all  the  im- 
portant grazing  information,  such  as:  the  area  of 
grazing  lands,  the  kind  of  forage,  the  species  of 
forage  plants,  the  location  of  streams,  springs,  and 
other  watering  places  for  stock,  the  location  of 
stock  driveways,  drift  fences,  and  cabins,  the  loca- 
tion of  timber  lands  that  do  and  those  that  do  not 
contain  forage,  and  many  other  matters  pertaining 
to  the  grazing  of  stock.  The  maps  and  field  data 
secured  furnish  the  basis  for  range  improvement 
and  more  intensive  range  management.  Up  to 
date,  over  12,288,885  acres  of  range  lands  have 
been  covered  in  this  way. 

All  intensive  forage  and  range  experiments  are 
conducted  at  the  Great  Basin  Experiment  Station 
on  the  Manti  National  Forest.  Here  intensive 
problems  are  carried  on  under  controlled  condi- 
tions and  under  constant  and  careful  observation 


100        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

and  the  necessary  care  and  thoroughness  is  given 
to  them  which  could  only  be  given  them  at  a  fully 
equipped  experiment  station.  All  grazing  inves- 
tigations on  the  National  Forests  are  carried  on 
under  the  direct  supervision  of  this  station. 

The  seeding  of  depleted  grazing  lands  is  ac- 
complished either  by  direct  artificial  seeding  or 
through  rotation  grazing.  Under  the  former 
method  the  seed  of  native  or  foreign  grasses  and 
other  range  plants  are  sown  on  the  range,  in  the 
attempt  to  increase  the  forage  crop.  By  rotation 
grazing,  that  is,  permitting  the  stock  to  feed  first 
on  one  area  and  then  on  another,  the  grasses  and 
forage  plants  are  allowed  to  recuperate  from  the 
effect  of  grazing  and  allowed  to  reproduce.  The 
stock  is  excluded  from  one  area  while  the  seed  is 
maturing,  and  after  the  seed  has  matured  and  be- 
come scattered  on  the  area  the  stock  is  allowed  to 
graze  on  it.  As  the  stock  feeds  on  the  plants  it 
tramples  the  seed  into  the  ground  and  thereby  fur- 
nishes favorable  conditions  for  the  germination  of 
the  seed.  There  are  few  parts  of  the  National 
Forests  that  cannot  be  completely  regenerated  by 
the  adoption  of  either  one  or  the  other  of  these  two 
methods. 


ADMINISTRATION  101 

To  reduce  interference  with  the  natural  processes 
of  reforestation,  damage  to  tree  growth  and  water- 
sheds, depletion  of  grazing  lands,  and  the  waste  of 
valuable  forest  resources,  it  is  important  to  develop 
improved  methods  of  managing  different  kinds  of 
live  stock  on  different  types  of  land.  These  new 
methods  of  handling  stock  have  been  applied  only 
to  sheep.  The  lambing  of  sheep  in  small  in- 
closures  on  the  open  range  has  resulted  in  the  sav- 
ing of  a  large  percentage  of  the  lambs.  The  new 
method  of  bedding  sheep  where  they  happen  to  be 
at  nightfall  has  been  found  to  have  many  advan- 
tages over  the  old  system  of  returning  them  to  an 
established  bedding  ground  a  number  of  nights  in 
succession.  The  results  have  been  better  sheep, 
less  damage  to  range,  and  more  feed. 

It  was  not  so  many  years  ago  that  practically 
nothing  was  known  about  the  various  plants  which 
make  up  the  forage  crop  on  the  National  Forests. 
Forest  officers  could  not  identify  the  plants  or  say 
whether  they  were  of  value  for  forage  or  not. 
This  made  it  difficult  to  secure  the  use  of  each  range 
by  the  class  of  stock  to  which  it  was  best  adapted, 
to  apply  deferred  and  rotation  grazing  and  to 
eliminate  losses  from  poisonous  plants.  This  ob- 


102        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

stacle  to  efficient  range  management  was  overcome 
when  a  system  of  plant  collection  and  identification 
was  started  by  the  Forest  Service.  Some  23,000 
specimens  of  about  3,000  different  species  have 
been  collected  on  the  National  Forests,  identified 
by  specialists  and  the  collector  informed  as  to  the 
value  of  each  species.  The  identification  of  range 
plants  is  the  first  step  toward  securing  an  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  life  history  of  the  plant.  Such 
information  as  the  soil  and  moisture  requirements, 
date  of  flowering  and  seeding,  requirements  for  re- 
production, and  its  relation  to  other  range  plants 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  if  the  maximum  forage 
crop  is  to  be  produced  on  the  range  each  year. 
This  constitutes  the  latest  stage  in  the  development 
of  grazing  studies. 

Investigations  Dealing  with  Poisonous  Plants 
and  Predatory  Animals.  In  cooperation  with  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  the  study  of  poisonous 
plants  and  the  means  for  reducing  the  losses  from 
them  has  been  undertaken.  The  death  camas,  the 
lupines,  the  larkspurs,  some  of  the  wild  cherries, 
locoweed,  and  practically  all  species  of  zygadenus 
are  plants  that  have  been  found  to  cause  death 
among  stock.  While  the  handling  of  stock  to 


ADMINISTRATION  103 

avoid  the  poison  areas  can  eliminate  the  losses  to  a 
small  extent,  it  has  been  found  that  the  most  ex- 
peditious remedy  is  in  digging  out  and  destroying 
the  poisonous  plants.  On  the  Stanislaus  National 
Forest  in  California,  a  cattle  range  of  about  14,000 
acres,  containing  about  67  acres  of  larkspur,  was 
cleared  of  this  weed  at  a  cost  of  about  $695.  The 
average  loss  of  cattle  in  previous  years  had  been 
about  34  head.  Following  the  eradication  of  the 
larkspur  the  loss  was  4  head.  The  net  saving  was 
valued  at  $1,800.  Similar  operations  are  con- 
ducted on  other  Forests. 

The  work  of  the  destruction  of  predatory  ani- 
mals has  been  transferred  to  the  hands  of  the 
Bureau  of  Biological  Survey.  Formerly  special 
Forest  Service  hunters  were  detailed  to  hunt  the 
animals,  and  these  men  used  to  kill  about  4,000  a 
year.  The  Biological  Survey,  however,  still  fur- 
nishes traps,  ammunition  and  poison  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  predatory  animals  to  Forest  officers,  who  do 
this  work  in  connection  with  their  regular  duties. 
Bears,  coyotes,  mountain  lions,  lynxes,  wildcats, 
and  wolves  are  the  animals  that  do  the  most  of  the 
damage.  What  makes  the  problem  a  difficult  one 
is  that  the  wolf  and  the  coyote,  the  two  species 


104       OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

which  do  the  greatest  damage  to  game  and  domes- 
tic stock,  are  transient  visitors  on  the  Forests  which 
frequent  the  Forests  only  when  game  and  stock  is 
most  abundant.  They  are  bred,  born,  and  spend 
the  greater  portion  of  their  lives  in  the  foothills 
outside  of  the  National  Forests.  Under  these 
conditions  the  animals  killed  on  the  Forests  are 
quickly  replaced  by  others  from  outside.  For  this 
reason  the  matter  was  handed  over  to  the  Bio- 
logical Survey,  which  will  destroy  these  animals 
throughout  the  public  domain  and  the  results  will 
be  much  more  permanent  and  effective. 

Besides  the  investigations  carried  on  by  the  For- 
est Experiment  Stations  many  studies  are  carried 
on  dealing  with  forest  products.  The  purpose  of 
the  Branch  of  Forest  Research  of  the  Forest  Serv- 
ice is  to  promote  the  most  profitable  and  econom- 
ical utilization  of  forest  products  by  means  of  ex- 
periments and  investigations.  The  work  of  the 
Branch  falls  into  three  divisions:  National  Forest 
utilization,  the  work  of  the  Forest  Products  Labor- 
atory, and  industrial  investigations. 

National  Forest  Utilization  Experiments.  The 
work  of  the  proper  utilization  of  the  products  of 
the  National  Forests  is  under  the  supervision  of 


ADMINISTRATION  105 

the  District  Forester  and  the  Assistant  District 
Forester  in  charge  of  Forest  Products  in  the  dis- 
tricts. Only  three  out  of  the  seven  districts  have 
such  an  organization.  These  men  have  charge  of 
all  problems  connected  with  the  use  and  marketing 
of  National  Forest  timber,  the  construction  of 
improvements  on  the  Forests,  and  related  adminis- 
trative questions.  The  following  problems  are  in- 
cluded: studies  of  existing  industries,  covering 
methods  and  costs  of  manufacture,  grades,  and 
other  specifications  of  manufactured  products  and 
the  prices  obtained  for  such  products;  the  collec- 
tion of  market  prices,  mill  scale  studies  to  deter- 
mine grades  and  overrun,  and  investigations  in  kiln 
drying;  waste  in  existing  industries  and  closer  util- 
ization possible  through  improved  methods;  new 
uses  for  National  Forest  species  through  wood 
preservation;  introduction  of  industries  which  will 
result  in  closer  or  more  profitable  utilization,  as  the 
manufacture  of  pulp  and  paper,  wood  distillation, 
turpentining,  and  the  manufacture  of  secondary 
wood  products;  overcoming  prejudices  against 
particular  species  or  classes  of  material;  general 
questions  of  timber  supply  and  demand,  markets 
and  freight  rates ;  advice  and  assistance  in  the  con- 


106        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

struction  of  National  Forest  improvements,  par- 
ticularly in  the  use  of  wood  preservatives;  advice 
and  assistance  to  persons  on  any  matter  connected 
with  the  utilization  of  National  Forest  timber;  the 
preparation  of  publications  upon  subjects  covered 
by  investigations  which  have  practical  or  scientific 
value;  and  demonstrations  of  methods  or  processes 
developed  by  the  Forest  Service  for  the  benefit  of 
local  communities. 

The  presence  on  a  Forest  of  large  quantities  of 
unmarketable  timber,  or  dead  timber,  or  of  mate- 
rial not  used  in  current  sales  would  mean  an  inves- 
tigation of  methods  for  its  utilization.  Local 
problems  affecting  wood-using  industries  in  manu- 
facturing or  marketing  timber,  such  as  sap  stain  in 
lumber,  difficulties  in  seasoning  lumber,  and  the 
effect  of  different  silvicultural  methods  upon  the 
average  grades  of  lumber  manufactured,  are  also 
taken  up  with  the  Products  experts  at  the  District 
Office.  Also  in  the  construction  of  National  For- 
est improvements  the  Forest  Supervisor  may  need 
assistance  in  applying  wood  preservatives  to  tele- 
phone poles,  fence  posts,  and  other  material. 
Sometimes  timber  treating  plants  are  erected,  if 
necessary,  to  treat  not  only  material  used  on  the 


ADMINISTRATION  107 

National  Forests,  but  also  material  used  by  local 
residents  near  a  Forest. 

One  of  the  important  problems  which  confronts 
the  Office  of  Products  in  the  various  National 
Forest  districts  is  the  utilization  of  the  so-called 
low  grade  or  inferior  tree  species.  The  terms 
"high  grade"  and  "low  grade"  or  "inferior,"  as 
used  at  present,  merely  indicate  the  lumberman's 
valuation  of  the  timber  from  his  point  of  view  and 
according  to  his  standards  of  value.  If  a  certain 
species  will  not  produce  clear  lumber,  which  is 
straight-grained,  easily  worked,  and  not  subject  to 
splitting  or  warping,  it  is  at  once  classed  as  inferior. 
But  the  Forest  Products  specialists  each  year  are 
making  progress  in  demonstrating  that  wood,  in 
order  to  be  of  marketable  value,  does  not  neces- 
sarily need  to  be  cut  in  the  form  of  lumber.  It  is 
also  being  shown  that  proper  methods  of  drying 
lumber  make  possible  the  use  of  inferior  woods  for 
lumber  and  manufacturing  purposes. 

The  Office  of  Forest  Products  in  California  has 
made  considerable  progress  in  overcoming  the  lum- 
berman's prejudices  against  the  inferior  species  in 
the  California  National  Forests  and  the  species  are 
beginning  to  find  wider  use  and  to  command  better 


108        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

prices.  The  discovery  that  Incense  cedar  was 
valuable  for  making  lead  pencils  caused  the  price  of 
this  so-called  "inferior"  species  to  jump  from  an 
average  of  $10  per  thousand  feet  in  logs  f.  o.  b. 
cars  to  as  high  as  $16.  White  fir,  a  species  re- 
ligiously avoided  by  lumbermen  in  the  woods,  was 
found  to  have  special  properties  which  make  it 
very  valuable  as  a  pulp  wood.  One  mill  in  Cali- 
fornia now  uses  annually  upwards  of  30,000  cords 
of  it  for  making  paper.  Lodgepole  pine  has  been 
shown  to  have  a  great  value  for  telephone  and  tele- 
graph poles  when  treated  with  preservatives.  It 
was  found  to  be  12  per  cent,  stronger  than  Western 
Red  cedar,  the  standard  pole  timber,  has  a  more 
desirable  taper  and  can  be  shipped  for  less  money. 
Many  other  cases  could  be  cited  from  this  and  other 
National  Forest  Districts. 

Forest  Products:  Laboratory  Experiments. 
The  work  of  the  Forest  Products  Laboratory  in- 
cludes investigations  on  the  mechanical  properties 
of  wood;  the  physical  and  chemical  characteristics 
and  properties  of  wood ;  air  seasoning  and  artificial 
drying  of  wood ;  agencies  destructive  to  wood ;  wood 
preservation ;  wood  distillation ;  production  of  naval 
stores;  and  the  production  of  pulp  and  paper  and 


ADMINISTRATION  109 

other  chemical  products  of  wood.  This  work  is 
carried  on  at  the  Laboratory  and  sometimes  in 
cooperation  with  the  National  Forests  and  district 
experts.  At  the  Laboratory  there  is  a  director 
and  a  large  staff  of  technical  and  scientific  men, 
such  as  chemists,  physicists,  and  engineers,  each  of 
whom  is  an  expert  in  his  particular  line  of  work. 

A  good  deal  of  attention  is  given  to  testing  the 
strength  of  woods  grown  in  the  United  States,  as 
a  means  of  assisting  users  to  select  the  species  best 
adapted  to  a  given  purpose,  or  to  find  substitutes 
for  species  which  are  becoming  difficult  to  obtain. 
The  strength  of  a  good  many  species  used  for 
structural  timbers  has  been  tested.  The  species 
most  used  for  this  class  of  timber  are  the  Southern 
pines,  Douglas  fir,  Norway  pine,  Tamarack,  and 
Red  spruce.  An  important  discovery  was  made 
several  years  ago  that  Western  hemlock,  generally 
considered  an  inferior  timber,  showed  an  average 
strength  88  per  cent,  as  great  as  that  of  Douglas 
fir,  one  of  the  best  construction  timbers  in  the 
United  States.  Strength  tests  have  also  been 
made  on  fire-killed  timber  and  these  have  shown 
that  timber  killed  by  fire  is  almost  as  strong  as 
green  timber.  Other  tests  have  been  made  to  de- 


110       OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

termine  the  effect  of  preservative  treatment  upon 
the  strength  of  timber.  As  a  result  of  the  large 
number  and  variety  of  strength  tests  carried  on  by 
this  Laboratory  the  United  States  Government 
now  has  a  more  thorough  and  comprehensive  col- 
lection of  data  on  the  mechanical  properties  of 
wood  than  any  other  nation. 

Many  studies  are  also  conducted  to  determine 
the  physical  properties  and  the  structure  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  wood  grown  in  this  country.  The 
minute  structure  of  the  wood  of  many  of  our  native 
species  has  been  studied  by  means  of  microscopic 
slides.  A  study  has  also  been  made  of  a  large 
number  of  species  to  determine  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  actual  wood  substance.  Other  tests  are 
made  to  determine  the  specific  heat  of  woods. 

The  drying  or  seasoning  of  woods,  more  espe- 
cially of  certain  species  which  have  been  found 
difficult  to  season,  has  received  a  good  deal  of  at- 
tention. A  new  type  of  kiln,  invented  by  a  Forest 
Service  man,  has  been  devised  to  season  such  woods 
as  the  eucalyptus,  which  has  always  been  very  diffi- 
cult to  handle  in  drying.  Western  larch  has  been 
seasoned  with  a  loss  of  only  5  per  cent.,  whereas 
the  loss  in  ordinary  commercial  kilns  usually  ran  be- 


ADMINISTRATION  111 

tween  60  and  70  per  cent.  As  a  result,  many 
manufacturers  have  remodeled  their  old  kilns  to 
embody  the  new  Forest  Service  methods.  A  new 
method  has  also  been  developed  for  the  rapid  dry- 
kilning  of  Eastern  hemlock,  which  has  great  com- 
mercial possibilities. 

Experiments  in  wood  preservation  have  to  do 
with  the  kind  of  preservatives  it  is  best  to  use,  the 
character  of  the  wood  to  be  treated,  and  the 
methods  of  injection.  Experiments  have  devel- 
oped the  best  methods  for  treating  railroad  ties, 
mine  timbers,  fence  posts,  wood  paving  blocks, 
telephone  and  telegraph  poles,  and  wharf  piling. 
Untreated  mine  timbers  have  been  found  to  last 
only  from  1  to  2  years,  while  treated  ones  are 
usually  entirely  sound  at  the  end  of  4  years.  Un- 
treated railroad  ties  last  from  5  to  10  years,  while 
treated  ones  will  last  over  15.  Such  experi- 
ments as  these  have  shown  the  advisability  of 
treating  all  kinds  of  timbers  with  creosote  or  zinc 
chloride,  or  some  other  preservative.  Many  new 
preservatives  are  being  proposed  or  marketed  each 
year  by  various  companies  or  individuals.  These 
are  all  tested  to  determine  their  value  to  prevent 
the  growth  of  fungi  in  the  wood.  Their  efficiency 


112        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

varies  greatly  and  many  of  them  have  been  shown 
to  have  very  small  value. 

Studies  in  wood  distillation  seek  to  find  new 
woods  which  can  be  used  for  this  industry,  new 
and  more  efficient  methods  which  can  be  employed, 
and  new  uses  for  wood  waste  and  stumps.  Char- 
coal, wood  alcohol,  acetate  of  lime,  and  tar  are 
derived  from  the  distillation  of  such  woods  as 
beech,  birch,  and  maple,  to  which  tar  oils  and  tur- 
pentine are  added  for  the  pines  and  other  resinous 
woods.  These  by-products  of  wood  distillation 
have  many  uses,  as  well  as  the  many  products  which 
are,  in  turn,  made  from  these  by-products.  Char- 
coal is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  black  powder, 
acetic  acid  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  explosives, 
and  wood  alcohol  is  converted  into  formaldehyde 
for  disinfection  against  contagious  diseases.  By 
means  of  temperature  control  methods  developed  at 
the  Laboratory  in  the  destructive  distillation  of 
hardwoods,  the  net  gain  per  annum  of  one  com- 
pany's plant  was  over  $17,000.  About  one-half  of 
the  plants  of  the  country  have  adopted  the  new 
method  developed  by  the  Forest  Products  Labora- 
tory. 

Experiments  have  been  conducted  by  the  Labor- 


ADMINISTRATION  113 

atory  in  the  distillation  of  the  needles  of  coniferous 
trees  and  the  distillation  of  the  crude  gum  of  some 
of  the  important  timber  trees  of  the  South  and 
West.  The  oils  distilled  from  many  trees  in  this 
way  have  found  great  use  for  various  purposes. 
Shoeblacking  owes  its  peculiar  aromatic  odor, 
faintly  suggestive  of  the  deep  spruce  and  hemlock 
woods,  to  an  oil  which  is  distilled  from  these  same 
kind  of  needles.  Evergreen  tree  leaf  oils  are  used 
for  the  perfume  of  soap,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
liniments,  insecticides,  and  medicinal  preparations. 

Investigations  have  been  carried  on  at  the  Forest 
Products  Laboratory  in  making  artificial  silk  from 
sawdust.  The  industry  has  already  attained  con- 
siderable proportions.  It  consists  principally  of 
converting  cellulose  into  viscose,  which,  in  turn,  is 
manufactured  into  an  almost  endless  number  and 
variety  of  silk  and  other  goods  varying  from  sau- 
sage casings  to  silk  hose  and  tapestries.  Sawdust 
is  used  also  in  the  manufacture  of  inlaid  linoleum 
and  dynamite. 

Experiments  in  naval  stores  are  attempting  to 
improve  the  old  methods  of  harvesting  turpentine, 
which  have  proven  very  destructive  to  the  forests. 
With  the  approaching  exhaustion  of  the  Southern 


OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

Pinery  as  a  field  for  the  naval  stores  industry,  it 
has  become  more  and  more  important  to  find  other 
species  for  this  purpose.  Consequently  the  Labor- 
atory has  conducted  experiments  with  the  various 
pines  on  the  National  Forests  in  California,  Colo- 
rado, Arizona,  and  New  Mexico. 

A  great  many  pulp  and  paper  investigations  are 
also  conducted  by  this  Laboratory.  The  large  size 
of  the  industry  and  the  threatened  exhaustion  of 
the  native  spruce  forests  which  furnish  the  prin- 
cipal supply  are  circumstances  which  call  for  in- 
tensive investigations.  About  nine-tenths  of  the 
paper  which  we  use  is  made  from  wood,  and  the 
amount  of  wood  which  is  converted  into  paper  an- 
nually has  reached  almost  5,000,000  cords.  There 
are  over  2,500  newspapers  in  the  United  States, 
and  it  is  said  that  a  single  issue  of  a  New  York 
Sunday  paper  consumes  the  trees  on  about  15  acres 
of  forest.  The  main  object  of  the  work  at  the 
Laboratory  has  been  to  use  other  species  of  wood 
for  the  manufacture  of  paper  to  offset  the  fast 
waning  supplies  of  spruce.  Poplar,  hemlock,  pine 
and  balsam  are  now  being  used  in  considerable 
quantities.  News  and  wrapping  paper  has  also 
been  successfully  made  from  many  National  Forest 


Figure  32.  A  plank  of  Incense  cedar  affected  by  a  disease  known 
as  "pin  rot."  By  cutting  the  cedar  timber  when  it  is  mature  this 
can  be  largely  avoided.  Lassen  National  Forest,  California.  Photo 
by  the  author. 

Figure  33.  The  western  pine  forests  will  some  day  be  a  great 
source  for  naval  stores.  By  distilling  the  crude  resin  of  the  Jeffrey 
pine  a  light  volatile  oil — abietene — is  secured  which  has  great  healing 
and  curative  properties.  Lassen  National  Forest,  California.  Photo 
by  the  author. 


ADMINISTRATION  115 

species,  including  Sitka  spruce,  Western  hemlock, 
Engelmann  spruce,  Red  fir,  White  fir,  and  Lodge- 
pole  pine.  Kraft  paper  has  been  made  and  manu- 
factured into  suitcases,  bags,  wall  coverings,  twine, 
and  similar  articles.  Not  only  has  the  Forest 
Products  Laboratory  brought  into  use  species  of 
trees  never  before  tried  for  paper  making,  but  it 
has  also  improved  some  of  the  old  methods  of 
paper  making  to  such  an  extent  that  the  results 
have  been  adopted  by  various  large  paper  mills. 

Many  strength  tests  are  conducted  with  packing 
boxes.  The  railroad  companies  of  the  United 
States  are  paying  annually  claims  amounting  to 
many  millions  of  dollars  because  of  goods  damaged 
in  shipment.  Much  of  the  damage  is  preventable 
through  properly  constructed  boxes.  Tests  con- 
ducted at  the  Laboratory  have  shown  for  canned- 
food  boxes  an  increase  in  strength  of  300  per  cent, 
by  the  use  of  four  additional  nails  in  each  end  of 
the  box.  The  results  of  these  tests  are  being 
rapidly  adopted  by  manufacturers  and  canners. 

The  dyeing  principle  of  the  Osage  orange  wood 
was  not  used  prior  to  the  investigations  conducted 
by  the  Laboratory.  The  value  of  this  material  has 
been  so  conclusively  shown  that  about  one  million 


116        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

dollars'  worth  of  the  dye  is  now  being  manufac- 
tured annually  in  the  United  States  and  practically 
all  from  material  which  was  formerly  wasted. 

The  discovery  that  sodium  fluoride  is  superior 
to  sodium  carbonate  in  preventing  sap  stain  in  lum- 
ber promises  to  reduce  materially  the  present  esti- 
mated loss  of  $7,000,000  from  this  cause. 

Industrial  Investigations.  The  function  of  the 
Office  of  Industrial  Investigations  of  the  Branch 
of  Forest  Research  is  to  conduct  statistical  and  in- 
dustrial studies  of  uses  of  wood  in  the  United 
States.  The  aim  of  these  investigations  is  to  de- 
termine methods  and  conditions  under  which  wood 
is  now  used ;  the  marketable  products  obtained  from 
it;  tendencies  in  methods  of  manufacture;  and  im- 
proved methods  possible,  especially  in  the  util- 
ization of  waste.  When  practicable,  such  investi- 
gations are  followed  by  the  commercial  application 
of  their  results.  This  office  also  conducts  all  sta- 
tistical investigations  of  the  production  and  use  of 
forest  products. 

The  work  of  industrial  investigations  includes 
the  following:  collection  and  compilation  of  statis- 
tics on  the  production  and  consumption  of  forest 
products,  prevailing  market  and  stump  age  prices, 


ADMINISTRATION  117 

imports  and  exports,  and  transportation  rates;  the 
compilation  and  study  of  specifications  of  rough 
and  manufactured  forest  products ;  studies  of  lum- 
ber manufacture  and  wood-using  industries  as  to 
methods,  forms  of  material,  waste,  costs,  equip- 
ment, substitution  of  one  species  for  another,  and 
improvements  through  a  more  conservative  use  of 
raw  material;  studies  of  special  problems  or  fea- 
tures of  wood-using  industries;  advice  and  assist- 
ance to  States,  industries  and  individuals  along 
such  lines  of  work ;  and  the  dissemination  of  results 
by  publications. 

Many  studies  in  wood  utilization  are  made  not 
only  of  certain  industries  like  the  shingle,  or  the 
lumber  industry,  but  also  dealing  with  the  indus- 
tries of  particular  sections  of  the  country  and  with 
the  various  States.  These  investigations  in  the 
States  show  the  kinds  and  amounts  of  woods  re- 
quired by  the  various  industries,  the  purposes  for 
which  the  various  species  are  employed,  and  the 
extent  of  their  use.  So  far  the  wood-using  indus- 
tries of  35  States  have  been  studied  and  the  results 
published. 

Records  of  lumber  prices  for  important  woods 
are  compiled  quarterly.  These  figures  are  useful 


118        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

in  establishing  timber  sale  prices  on  the  National 
Forests.  Statistics  as  to  the  annual  consumption 
of  lumber  in  the  country  are  also  compiled  by  this 
office. 

The  wood  waste  exchange  was  established  in 
1914  by  the  Forest  Service.  It  consists  of  two  lists 
of  manufacturers,  which  are  sent  out  quarterly  to 
persons  desiring  them.  One  of  these  is  of  "Oppor- 
tunities to  Sell  Waste"  and  contains  the  names  of 
firms  which  use  sawdust  and  small  pieces  of  wood. 
This  list  is  sent  to  people  having  waste  for  sale. 
The  other  list  is  of  "Opportunities  to  Buy  Waste," 
and  gives  the  names  of  concerns  which  have  waste  to 
dispose  of.  This  list  is  sent  to  people  who  wish  to 
buy  material.  No  charge  is  made  for  this  service, 
and  at  the  present  time  over  500  cooperators  are 
using  this  exchange. 

By  the  use  of  this  exchange,  makers  of  wooden 
novelties  have  been  successful  in  finding  supplies 
of  material  near  their  plants.  Other  wood- work- 
ing industries  have  been  able  to  dispose  of  their 
waste  at  higher  prices  than  they  could  otherwise 
have  obtained.  Many  firms  were  located  within 
short  distances  of  each  other,  but  until  recently 
have  had  no  way  of  getting  together.  A  Philadel- 


ADMINISTRATION  119 

phia  firm,  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  composi- 
tion flooring,  has  been  able  to  obtain  a  portion  of 
its  sawdust  from  a  New  York  lumber  company.  A 
New  York  woodworking  establishment  disposed  of 
its  waste  pieces  of  white  oak  and  sugar  maple  to  a 
maker  of  wooden  novelties  in  Connecticut  for  use 
in  the  manufacture  of  furniture  knobs.  A  clock 
maker  of  Connecticut  secured  waste  material  for 
making  clock  boxes  from  the  planing  mill  of  a  New 
York  lumber  company. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  PROTECTION  OF  THE 
NATIONAL  FORESTS 

The  resources  of  the  National  Forests  may  be 
injured  or  destroyed  in  many  ways.  Fire  may 
burn  the  timber  and  young  growth;  insects  and 
tree  diseases  may  damage  or  kill  timber,  and  certain 
persons  may  innocently  or  willfully  commit  tres- 
pass on  National  Forest  land  and  use  the  resources 
without  permit.  Then  also,  the  fish  and  game  of 
the  Forests  must  be  protected  from  unlawful  shoot- 
ing and  trapping,  and  the  water  issuing  from  Na- 
tional Forest  streams  must  be  kept  free  from  pollu- 
tion, to  protect  the  public  health. 

PROTECTION  FROM  FIRE 

Forest  Fire  Danger  on  the  National  Forests. 
Practically  all  the  resources  of  the  National  Forests 
are  subject  to  severe  injury  or  even  to  entire  de- 
struction by  fire.  It  is  an  ever-present  danger  on 

the  National  Forests,  due  to  their  great  inacces- 

120 


PROTECTION  121 

sibility,  their  dry  climate,  and  to  other  unfavorable 
conditions.  There  are  probably  few  forest  regions 
in  the  world  where  the  danger  of  fire  is  greater  than 
on  the  National  Forests.  The  great  size  of  the 
individual  Forests,  as  compared  with  the  size  of  the 
available  patrolling  force,  the  difficulty  of  reaching 
remote  areas  across  miles  of  wilderness,  the  dry 
air  and  light  rainfall  in  most  parts  of  the  western 
United  States,  the  prevalence  of  lightning  storms 
in  the  mountains,  the  sparseness  of  the  population, 
and  the  constant  use  of  fire  in  the  industries  and 
the  daily  life  of  the  people,  all  combine  to  make  the 
hazard  exceptional. 

Importance  of  Fire  Protection.  Forest  fires 
when  uncontrolled  mean  the  loss  of  human  lives, 
the  destruction  of  homes,  live  stock,  forage,  timber 
and  watershed  cover.  Besides  the  direct  damage 
to  the  National  Forest  resources  it  defeats  all  at- 
tempts to  practice  forestry ;  it  nullifies  all  efforts  of 
forest  management,  such  as  regulation  of  cutting 
to  insure  a  second  crop  of  timber,  the  planting  of 
denuded  areas,  and  the  restriction  of  grazing  to 
assist  reproduction.  Fire  destroys  the  very  im- 
provements which  are  constructed  annually  at 
great  expense.  In  other  words,  protection  from 


122        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

fire  is  the  first  and  most  important  problem  on  the 
National  Forests  without  which  no  operation  or 
transaction,  however  small,  can  be  undertaken. 

If  the  problem  of  fire  protection  is  the  most  im- 
portant task  confronting  a  Forest  officer  on  the  Na- 
tional Forests,  then  certainly  fire  prevention  is  next 
in  importance.  Obviously  it  is  easier  to  prevent 
fires  than  to  fight  them.  All  large  conflagrations 
have  their  origin  in  small  fires  which  if  they  could 
be  reached  in  time  could  probably  be  put  out 
by  one  man.  But  in  regions  remote  from  water 
and  supplies  fires  may  start  and  reach  vast  propor- 
tions before  a  party  of  fire  fighters  can  get  to  the 
scene,  no  matter  how  promptly  the  start  is  made. 
By  far  the  best  plan,  therefore,  is  to  prevent  fires 
rather  than  to  depend  upon  fighting  them  after 
they  get  started.  To  this  end  the  Forest  Service 
has  given  the  most  earnest  consideration.  During 
the  dangerous  season  the  main  attention  of  Forest 
Supervisors  and  Forest  Rangers  is  devoted  to  pre- 
venting fire.  Extra  men  are  employed,  the  For- 
ests are  systematically  patrolled,  and  a  careful 
lookout  is  maintained  from  high  points.  Roads  and 
trails  are  so  built  that  every  part  of  the  Forests 
may  be  quickly  reached  with  pack  animals.  Tools 


PROTECTION  123 

and  food  for  fire  fighters  are  stored  at  convenient 
places.  The  Ranger  stations  and  lookout  houses 
are  connected  with  the  office  of  the  Forest  Super- 
visor by  telephone,  so  that  men  may  be  quickly 
assembled  to  fight  a  dangerous  fire  which  the  pa- 
trolman cannot  subdue  alone.  Each  Forest  Su- 
pervisor endeavors  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  all 
forest  users  in  the  work  of  preventing  fires  and  in 
reporting  and  helping  to  fight  them  in  case  they  get 
started. 

Probably  the  beginning  point  of  any  discussion 
of  forest  fires  is  a  consideration  of  their  causes. 
The  Forest  Service  has  kept  careful  records  year 
after  year  (by  calendar  and  not  fiscal  years)  con- 
cerning the  cause,  the  damage,  the  area  burned 
over,  the  cost  of  fighting  and  many  other  matters. 
During  the  calendar  year  1917  there  were  7,814 
forest  fires  on  the  National  Forests.  Of  these  the 
National  Forests  of  California  had  to  contend  with 
1,862.  Of  the  total  number  of  forest  fires  40  per 
cent,  were  confined  to  less  than  *4  of  an  acre,  28 
per  cent,  to  less  than  10  acres,  while  32  per  cent, 
spread  over  areas  greater  than  10  acres.  The  large 
percentage  of  small  fires  shows  how  efficiently  the 
National  Forest  fire  protection  organization  works 


124        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

in  keeping  the  area  burned  over  to  the  lowest  possi- 
ble acreage. 

Causes  of  Forest  Fires  on  the  National  Forests. 
Forest  fires  on  the  National  Forests  originate  in 
many  different  ways.  In  1917,  lightningcaused 
27  per  cent.;  unknown  agencies,  17  j^P^ent.; 
campers,  17  per  cent.;  incendiaries,  12  per  cent.; 
railroads,  13  per  cent.;  brush  burning,  7  per  cent.; 
saw  mills,  3  per  cent.,  and  all  other  causes,  4  per 
cent.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  a  very  large  per- 
centage, at  least  60  per  cent.,  of  the  fires  are  at- 
tributable to  human  agencies  and  are  therefore  pre- 
ventable. At  least  27  per  cent,  of  the  fires,  those 
attributed  to  lightning,  are  not  preventable,  and 
the  only  way  to  combat  those  is  for  the  Forest  officer 
to  get  to  them  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  get 
started.  The  preventable  fires,  however,  may  be 
arrested  at  their  source,  that  is,  by  popular  educa- 
tion dealing  with  the  use  of  fire  in  the  woods  these 
causes  can  be  greatly  reduced  and,  in  time,  no  doubt, 
eliminated.  Therefore,  the  fire  protection  problem 
immediately  resolves  itself  into  two  almost  distinct 
phases  of  action — fire  prevention  and  fire  control. 

Just  how  these  various  agencies  start  fires  may 
be  of  interest.  Railroads  cause  fires  by  their  loco- 


.       PROTECTION  125 

motives  sending  out  sparks  through  the  smoke- 
stack or  dropping  hot  ashes  along  the  right-of-way. 
These  sparks  alight  in  inflammable  material,  such 
as  dry  grass  and  leaves,  and  start  a  fire.  Light- 
ning sets  fire  to  trees,  especially  dead  and  dry  ones. 
In  the  California  mountains,  lightning  storms  with- 
out rain  are  frequent  and  these  do  great  damage. 
The  author  has  seen  as  many  as  nine  forest  fires 
started  by  a  single  lightning  storm  inside  of 
half  an  hour.  Incendiary  fires  are  set  by  people 
with  varying  intent.  How  many  are  set  with 
malicious  intent,  just  to  see  the  forests  burn,  is  not 
known,  but  many  fires  are  started  by  people  setting 
fires  to  drive  game,  to  improve  the  pasture,  to  make 
traveling  through  the  woods  easier,  or  for  other 
reasons.  Brush  burning  includes  those  fires  which 
start  from  settlers  clearing  land  and  burning  the 
brush  and  thickets.  Campers  cause  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  fires  by  leaving  their  camp  fires 
burning.  Instead  of  extinguishing  them  before 
they  leave  camp,  careless  people  let  them  burn; 
a  wind  blows  a  few  sparks  into  some  dry  leaves  or 
grass  nearby,  and  the  fire  is  started.  Many  forest 
fires  also  start  around  logging  camps  by  sparks  es- 
caping from  logging  engines,  or  by  setting  fire  to 


126        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

the  slash  that  is  left  after  logging  and  allowing 
these  fires  to  get  beyond  control. 

Behavior  of  Forest  Fires.  Fires  behave  differ- 
ently, once  they  get  started,  depending  upon  the 
character  of  the  timber,  the  amount  of  wind,  and 
the  degree  of  inflammability  of  the  forest  cover. 
Ground  fires  burn  the  inflammable  dry  grass, 
needles,  dead  twigs,  etc.,  on  the  ground;  crown  fires 
are  much  more  severe  and,  being  usually  fanned  by 
a  heavy  wind,  run  through  the  tops  or  crowns  of  the 
trees;  brush  fires  burn  the  bushes  and  dry  shrubs 
from  5  to  10  feet  high;  timber  fires  consume  the 
entire  forest — crown,  stem,  ground  cover,  and  un- 
dergrowth— and  usually  occur  in  timber  that  stands 
close  together. 

Losses  by  Forest  Fires  on  the  National  Forests. 
The  results  of  forest  fires  naturally  vary  with  the 
kind  and  intensity  of  the  fire.  Crown  and  timber 
fires  do  the  most  damage,  and  ground  and  brush 
fires  do  less.  While  the  ground  fires  and  brush 
fires  seem  to  do  very  little  damage  to  the  valuable 
timber,  still  they  may  greatly  reduce  the  productive 
power  of  the  soil  and  destroy  the  watershed  cover. 
Severe  ground  fires  may  kill  valuable  timber  by 
girdling  the  trees.  The  great  fires  of  August,  1910, 


PROTECTION  127 

which  swept  northern  Idaho  and  western  Mon- 
tana destroyed  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  timber 
and  85  human  lives,  and  cost  the  United  States 
$839,000  for  fire  fighting.  These  were  timber  fires 
and  they  occurred  for  the  most  part  in  valuable 
stands  of  dense  timber. 

The  forest  fire  losses  on  the  National  Forests  for 
the  last  9  years  show  a  very  great  and  gradual 
reduction  of  losses  due  to  forest  fires.  In  1908,  the 
total  loss  through  fires  was  $451,188  and  in  1909 
it  was  $297,275.  In  1910,  the  year  of  the  great 
fires  in  Montana  and  Idaho,  there  were  very  heavy 
losses  in  timber  and  human  lives,  due  to  an  unusual 
combination  of  dry  weather  and  high  winds.  But 
in  that  year  the  fire  organization  was  not  complete ; 
it  had  never  really  been  tried  out.  In  this  year  the 
organization  received  its  first  severe  test,  and  while 
it  did  the  best  it  could  with  the  available  men  and 
equipment,  the  situation  in  Idaho  pointed  out  con- 
clusively the  weak  points  and  the  short-comings. 
The  proof  of  these  statements  is  found  in  the  statis- 
tics of  the  next  5  years,  when  the  average  total  loss 
for  1911  to  1915,  inclusive,  was  $293,000,  and,  it 
must  be  remembered,  several  of  these  years  were 
equally  as  unfavorable,  so  far  as  dry  weather  and 


128        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

high  winds  were  concerned,  as  the  year  1910.  Dur- 
ing these  years,  however,  the  fire  fighting  organ- 
ization had  a  good  chance  to  be  tried  out  thor- 
oughly; for,  as  is  quite  evident,  experience  is  the 
greatest  teacher  in  this  kind  of  work.  During  the 
calendar  year  1916  the  fire  losses  reached  a  new  low 
level,  compared  to  other  years,  the  losses  amount- 
ing to  only  $198,599.  In  1917  they  were  higher. 

The  Forest  Fire  Problem  Stated.  Having  seen 
a  little  of  the  causes,  behavior  and  results  of  forest 
fires  on  the  National  Forests,  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  state  the  forest  fire  problem  as  it  occurs  on 
the  National  Forests.  Briefly  stated,  it  is  this: 
With  the  funds,  organization  and  equipment  that 
are  available,  the  aim  of  the  Forest  Service  is  to 
keep  the  area  burned  over  each  year  (and  therefore 
the  damage  done)  down  to  an  accepted  reasonable 
minimum.  But  the  problem  is  not  as  easily  worked 
out  as  it  is  stated,  due,  largely,  to  a  great  many 
uncontrollable  and  variable  factors  which  cannot  be 
foreseen  in  advance,  the  most  important  of  which 
are  the  weather  conditions.  As  has  been  said  be- 
fore, there  are  two  general  ways  of  keeping  the 
area  burned  over  down  to  an  accepted  reasonable 
minimum:  either  prevent  the  fires  from  getting 


Figure  35.  A  forest  fire  lookout  station  on  the  summit  of  Broke- 
off  Mountain,  elevation  9,500  feet.  Lassen  National  Forest,  Cali- 
fornia. Photo  by  the  author. 

Figure  36.  Turner  Mountain  lookout  station,  Lassen  National 
Forest,  California.  This  is  a  10  ft.  by  10  ft.  cabin  with  a  stove  and 
with  folding  bed,  table,  and  chairs.  The  forest  officer  stationed  here 
watches  for  forest  fires  day  and  night  throughout  the  fire  season. 
Photo  bv  the  author. 


PROTECTION  129 

started  (as  in  the  case  of  those  started  by  human 
agencies)  or,  after  they  get  started,  to  get  to  them 
with  men  and  fire  fighting  implements  in  the  short- 
est possible  time  after  they  are  found.  The  former 
is  called  fire  prevention,  and  the  latter  fire  suppres- 
sion or  control.  How  the  organization  of  the  Na- 
tional Forests  solves  these  two  problems  is  of  the 
greatest  interest. 

Fire  Prevention.  The  measures  employed  for 
fire  prevention  may  be  either  administrative,  legis- 
lative or  educative  in  nature. 

The  most  important  administrative  measures  em- 
ployed to  prevent  fire  are  those  that  aim  to  reduce 
the  amount  of  inflammable  material  in  the  Na- 
tional Forests.  This  is  done  in  many  different 
ways.  The  free  use  timber  policy  enables  Rangers 
to  give  away  much  dead  timber,  both  standing  and 
down.  Timber  operators  cutting  on  the  National 
Forests  are  required  by  the  Forest  Service  contract 
to  remove  dead  snags,  which  are  a  fire  menace,  from 
the  timber  sale  area.  Where  there  is  fire  danger, 
all  slashing  resulting  from  such  sales  must  be 
burned  or  otherwise  disposed  of.  While  grazing 
is  usually  not  considered  a  measure  to  prevent  fires, 
still  grass  lands  that  have  not  been  grazed  over 


130       OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

become  very  dry  in  the  fall  and  are  a  dangerous 
fire  menace.  Wherever  it  is  feasible,  old  slash  left 
by  lumbermen  on  private  lands  adjacent  or  near  to 
the  National  Forests  are  burned,  when  the  fire  can 
be  confined  to  a  small  area.  Another  administra- 
tive measure  is  the  reduction  of  the  causes  of  fires 
by  a  patrol  force.  Forest  Guards  travel  along  the 
highways  where  there  is  most  traffic  and  most  dan- 
ger. Their  presence  often  is  enough  to  remind 
campers,  hunters  and  fishermen  to  put  their  camp 
fires  out  before  leaving  them.  These  patrolmen 
mix  with  the  people  and,  if  necessary,  remind  them 
in  a  courteous  way  to  be  careful  to  extinguish  their 
camp  fires  before  breaking  camp. 

Most  of  the  necessary  legislative  measures  for 
preventing  forest  fires  already  exist.  The  Na- 
tional Forest  force  is  seeking  merely  to  obtain  a 
strict  enforcement  of  existing  laws.  Railroads  are 
required  to  use  spark-arresters  on  their  locomotives 
and  to  provide  for  keeping  their  rights-of-way  free 
from  inflammable  material.  Logging  camps  must 
also  prevent  the  destruction  of  National  Forest 
timber  by  fire  by  using  spark-arresters  on  all  log- 
ging engines.  The  Forest  officers  are  ever  on 


PROTECTION  131 

the  alert  for  the  detection  and  apprehension  of 
campers  for  leaving  fires  unextinguished  and  in- 
cendiaries for  starting  fires  willfully.  These  care- 
less individuals  are  arrested  by  them  without  war- 
rant, either  under  the  Federal  laws,  if  the  fire  oc- 
curred on  National  Forest  lands,  or  under  the  State 
law,  if  it  occurred  outside  of  government  lands. 

Educational  measures  are  for  the  purpose  of  edu- 
cating both  the  local  forest-using  public  and  the 
general  public  who  may  travel  through  the  Forests 
in  the  careful  use  of  fires  in  the  forests.  Forest 
officers,  especially  Rangers,  come  into  personal 
touch  with  local  residents  and  users,  that  is,  the 
ranchers,  stockmen,  business  men,  loggers,  campers, 
hunters,  fishermen  and  others.  Such  people  are 
often  reminded  by  personal  appeals  by  the  Forest 
officers.  Most  of  them  have  learned  by  this  time, 
because  of  having  been  called  upon  to  help  fight 
fires  at  one  time  or  another,  and  having  gotten  a 
taste  of  the  result  of  other  people's  carelessness. 
Many  written  appeals  are  also  sent  out  by  the  Su- 
pervisor and  are  slipped  into  the  envelopes  when 
grazing  permits  and  other  official  documents  are 
mailed.  One  of  these  written  appeals,  and  prob- 


132        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

ably  the  one  that  has  been  used  most  widely,  is 
known  as  the  six  rules  for  the  prevention  of  fires 
in  the  mountains: 

1.  Matches. — Be  sure  your  match  is  out.     Break  it  in  two  be- 

fore you  throw  it  away. 

2.  Tobacco. — Throw  pipe  ashes  and  cigar  or  cigarette  stumps 

in  the  dust  of  the  road  and  stamp  or  pinch  out  the  fire 
before  leaving  them.  Don't  throw  them  into  the  brush, 
leaves,  or  needles. 

3.  Making  camp. — Build  a  small  camp  fire.     Build  it  in  the 

open,  not  against  a  tree  or  log,  or  near  brush.  Scrape 
away  the  trash  from  all  around  it. 

4.  Leaving  camp. — Never  leave  a  camp  fire,  even  for  a  short 

time,  without  quenching  it  with  water  or  earth. 

5.  Bonfires. — Never  build  bonfires  in  windy  weather  or  where 

there  is  the  slightest  danger  of  their  escaping  from  con- 
trol. Don't  make  them  larger  than  you  need. 

6.  Fighting  fires. — If  you  find  a  fire  try  to  put  it  out.     If  you 

can't,  get  word  of  it  to  the  nearest  United  States  forest 
ranger  or  State  fire  warden  at  once.  Keep  in  touch  with 
the  rangers. 

Besides  these  kinds  of  appeals,  many  kinds  of 
fire  warnings  are  posted  at  conspicuous  places  along 
roads  and  trails  to  remind  the  public  to  be  careful 
with  fire  in  the  Forests. 

An  attempt  is  also  made  to  reach  the  general  pub- 
lic, that  is,  those  living  outside  the  local  communi- 
ties, but  who  occasionally  travel  through  and  use 


Figure  3T.  A  fire  line  cut  through  the  low  bush-like  growth  of 
"Chaparral"  on  the  Angeles  National  Forest,  California.  This  "Cha- 
parral" is  of  great  value  for  regulating  stream  flow.  The  streams 
are  used  for  water  power,  domestic  purposes,  and  for  irrigating 
many  of  the  largest  lemon  and  orange  groves  of  southern  California. 

Figure  38.  A  forest  officers'  temporary  camp  while  fighting  forest 
fires.  Near  Oregon  National  Forest,  Oregon. 


PROTECTION  133 

the  National  Forests.  Many  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands travel  through  the  Forests  every  year  by  au- 
tomobile or  by  other  conveyances.  These  people 
camp  in  the  Forests,  fish,  hunt,  and  enjoy  the  cool 
climate  and  beautiful  scenery.  Before  they  start 
on  their  trips,  that  is,  while  they  are  still  in  their 
home  towns,  and  also  while  they  are  on  their  way, 
many  means  have  been  devised  to  reach  them. 
They  are  confronted  with  newspaper  advertise- 
ments, folders,  booklets,  and  other  printed  matter. 
In  towns  and  cities,  public  meetings,  lectures,  ex- 
hibits, expositions,  county  fairs,  commercial  clubs, 
and  the  chambers  of  commerce,  all  help,  either  di- 
rectly or  indirectly,  by  one  means  or  another,  to  in- 
form the  people  of  the  great  fire  danger  on  the 
National  Forests.  Even  the  letters  sent  out  by  the 
District  Forester  and  the  Supervisors  have  written 
appeals  affixed  to  the  outside  of  the  envelopes  by 
means  of  a  rubber  stamp.  In  short,  every  possible 
means  is  used  to  educate  the  public  that  uses  the  Na- 
tional Forests  and  in  whose  interest,  in  fact,  the 
Forests  are  being  maintained  and  protected. 

Fire  Suppression.  So  much  for  the  problem  of 
fire  prevention.  In  case  a  fire  does  get  started,  and 
there  are  thousands  of  them  on  the  National  For- 


134        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

ests  every  year,  the  problem,  as  has  been  said  before, 
consists  of  getting  men  and  tools  to  it  in  the  shortest 
possible  time,  in  order  to  keep  the  damage  down  to 
the  lowest  possible  point.  To  do  this,  a  vast  or- 
ganization has  been  formed  by  the  Forest  Service, 
which  is  not  unlike  the  Minute  Man  organization 
of  Revolutionary  days.  A  brief  outline  of  this  or- 
ganization and  how  it  works  when  a  fire  starts  will 
give  my  reader  a  still  better  idea  of  what  the  Forest 
Service  is  doing  in  forest  fire  protection.  But  be- 
fore speaking  of  this  organization,  a  few  prelim- 
inary matters  are  of  interest;  they  deal  with  the 
manner  of  distributing  fire  protection  funds,  forest 
fire  history,  and  the  study  of  weather  conditions. 

How  Forest  Fire  Funds  Are  Distributed.  It 
devolves  upon  the  Forest  Supervisor  and  also  the 
District  Forester  to  apportion  the  appropriation 
allotted  for  fire  protection  in  the  most  economical 
and  efficient  manner.  First  of  all,  the  money  is 
allotted  to  the  various  Forests  in  proportion  to  their 
needs.  These  needs  are  measured  by  the  size  of  the 
Forest,  the  value  of  its  resources,  the  length  of  the 
dangerous  dry  season,  the  fire  liability  or  the 
amount  of  money  loss  in  case  of  fire,  the  fire  hazard 


PROTECTION  135 

or  the  degree  to  which  an  area  is  subject  to  fire 
danger,  the  difficulty  of  prevention  and  control  and 
many  other  factors.  These  same  factors  are  em- 
ployed to  apportion  the  Supervisor's  allotment  of 
money  to  the  various  Ranger  districts  on  his  Forest. 
Probably  the  most  difficult  factors  for  the  Forest 
Supervisor  to  appraise  on  each  Ranger  district  are 
the  fire  liability  and  the  fire  hazard.  Fire  liability 
has  to  do  with  the  amount  of  damage  a  fire  could 
do  if  it  got  started.  Valuable  timber  needs  pro- 
tection most  of  all,  and  the  value  of  the  forest  is 
determined  by  the  kind  of  trees  in  it  and  the  den- 
sity of  the  stand.  Fire  hazard  is  usually  expressed 
in  terms  of  risk.  The  Supervisor  asks  his  Ranger  if 
the  risk  on  a  certain  area  in  his  district  is  high,  low, 
or  medium.  Risk  depends,  of  course,  largely  upon 
the  character  and  inflammability  of  the  forest  cover 
and  the  presence  of  human  causes.  Dense  forests 
involve  greater  risk  than  open,  scattering  trees; 
government  forests  interspersed  with  private  hold- 
ings containing  much  old  slash  have  a  high  risk 
factor ;  and  government  forests  near  sawmills,  large 
towns,  and  along  railroad  rights-of-way  also  have 
high  risk  factors.  All  these  matters  must  be  consid- 


136        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

ered,  in  order  that  each  area  on  each  Ranger  district 
gets  just  enough  money  for  fire  protection  and  not 
a  bit  more. 

Forest  Fire  History.  Very  important  also  in  fire 
protection  are  the  studies  which  the  Forest  Serv- 
ice is  carrying  on,  dealing  with  forest  fire  history. 
For  many  years  back,  records  have  been  kept  on  all 
fires :  their  causes,  area  burned  over,  date  of  the  fire, 
damage  caused,  the  exact  location  of  each  fire,  the 
cost  of  fighting  it,  the  total  number  each  month  and 
each  calendar  year,  and  many  other  data.  More 
recently  records  have  been  kept  upon  still  further 
details  connected  with  each  fire,  such  as:  the  time 
elapsed  between  the  start  and  the  discovery  of  a  fire, 
between  the  discovery  and  the  report  to  the  proper 
official,  between  the  report  and  the  beginning  of  the 
actual  work  of  fighting,  and  the  time  required  to 
put  the  fire  out.  Intensive  studies  have  been  made 
also  upon  the  length  and  character  of  the  fire  season 
on  each  Forest,  for  it  is  important  to  know  the 
maximum  length,  the  minimum  length  and  the 
average  length  of  the  fire  season.  These  data  show 
how  much  extra  help  must  be  hired  for  fire  patrol 
and  fire  fighting,  and  during  what  periods  the 
greatest  damage  is  done,  based  both  on  acreage 


Figure  39.  Putting  out  a  ground  fire.  Even  if  the  fire  does  not 
burn  the  standing  timber,  it  kills  the  young  trees  and  so  weakens  the 
larger  ones  that  they  are  easily  blown  over.  Wallovva  National  For- 
est, Oregon. 

Figure  40.  Forest  officers  ready  to  leave  a  tool  box  for  a  forest 
fire  in  the  vicinity.  Such  tool  boxes  as  these  are  stationed  at  conveni- 
ent places  on  National  Forests  ready  for  any  emergency.  Arapaho 
National  Forest,  Colorado. 


PROTECTION  137 

burned  over  and  by  the  number  of  fires.  Studies 
of  this  kind  yield  positive  information  on  what  areas 
of  each  Forest  are  particularly  liable  to  lightning 
fires,  to  camp  fires,  and  to  incendiary  fires.  With 
this  knowledge  the  Forest  Supervisor  can  plan  and 
distribute  his  men  and  funds  more  intelligently; 
they  tell  him  during  what  period  he  can  expect  the 
most  trouble,  and  therefore  must  have  the  greatest 
number  of  fire  fighters  at  his  command.  It  is 
scientific  study  like  this  that  is  doing  more  than 
anything  else  to  solve  the  fire  protection  problem 
in  the  Western  States. 

Relation  of  Forest  Fires  to  the  Weather.  In 
cooperation  with  the  United  States  Weather 
Bureau,  the  Forest  Service  studies  weather  condi- 
tions in  relation  to  forest  fires.  Weather  forecasts 
have  been  sent  to  each  Forest  Supervisor  through- 
out the  fire  season,  informing  him  of  the  probable 
weather  conditions.  The  velocity  and  duration  of 
the  wind,  the  temperature,  the  precipitation,  and 
the  relative  humidity  are  all  factors  which  greatly 
affect  the  inflammability  of  the  forest.  Forest  Su- 
pervisors have  been  informed  in  these  forecasts  of 
what  are  known  as  emergency  conditions,  that  is, 
an  unsual  and  abnormal  combination  of  weather 


138        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

conditions  which  make  fire  danger  very  great. 
These  conditions  may  be  a  high  wind,  low  relative 
humidity,  high  temperatures,  or  a  combination  of 
the  three.  When  a  Forest  Supervisor  is  informed 
by  the  District  Forester  that  emergency  conditions 
are  likely  to  exist  during  the  next  ten  days  or  so,  he 
immediately  sends  an  alarm  to  all  his  Rangers  to  be 
especially  watchful. 

Improvements  and  Equipment  for  Protection. 
After  the  preliminaries  of  fire  protection  finance, 
forest  fire  history,  and  the  study  of  weather  and 
emergency  conditions  have  been  worked  out,  prob- 
ably the  first  and  most  important  prerequisite  to 
forest  fire  protection  is  a  matter  already  spoken  of, 
namely,  the  improvements  and  the  equipment. 
The  construction  and  maintenance  of  improvements 
and  the  possession  of  suitable  equipment  is  second 
in  importance  only  to  the  organization  which  is  to 
do  the  actual  fire  suppression.  Roads,  trails,  tele- 
phone lines,  fire  lines,  lookout  stations,  Ranger  sta- 
tions, tool  and  food  caches,  a  central  supply  depot, 
and  many  other  things  are  necessary  before  men 
can  be  effective.  Each  Forest  Ranger  has  use  for 
the  following  equipment:  fire  fighting  tools,  water 
bags  and  pails,  teams,  pack  horses,  wagons,  auto- 


PROTECTION  139 

mobiles,  saddle  horses,  tents,  portable  telephone 
lines,  riding  and  packing  equipment,  and  many 
other  special  equipment,  which  must  be  hired  when 
occasion  for  its  use  arises.  If  a  Forest  Ranger 
has  not  access  to  this  equipment,  and  few  of  them 
have,  he  has  hanging  by  his  telephone  a  complete  list 
of  all  the  stores,  stables,  garages,  etc.,  in  the  neigh- 
boring towns  and  how  much  equipment  each  can 
furnish  when  called  upon. 

Forest  Fire  Maps  and  Charts.  Not  the  least 
important  bit  of  equipment,  by  any  means,  is  the 
fire  map  or  maps.  The  Forest  Supervisor  has  a 
fire  map  of  his  whole  forest  in  his  office  and  the 
Forest  Ranger  has  one  of  his  district  (sometimes 
including  the  neighboring  districts,  too)  hanging 
in  his  cabin,  usually  posted  conspicuously,  so  that 
it  can  be  referred  to  any  time  of  the  day  or  night 
without  delay.  These  maps  have  upon  them  all 
the  available  information  regarding  the  country 
which  is  to  be  protected.  They  show  physiographic 
features,  such  as  topography,  creeks,  springs, 
meadows,  water,  swamps,  etc. ;  vegetative  features, 
such  as  timber,  forage,  brush,  reproduction,  planted 
areas,  regenerating  areas,  slashings,  etc. ;  such  man- 
made  features  as  roads,  trails,  cabins,  ranger  sta- 


140        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

tions,  corrals,  pastures,  Supervisor's  headquarters, 
sheep  camps,  cattle  camps,  ranches,  camp  sites,  rail- 
roads, logging  railroads  and  camps,  sawmills, 
power  plants,  towns,  villages,  etc. ;  and  special  pro- 
tective features,  such  as  locations  of  men,  tools, 
equipment,  tool  and  food  caches,  local  help,  emer- 
gency help,  fire  lines,  fire  breaks,  lookouts,  govern- 
ment and  private  telephone  lines,  instruments  and 
switchboards,  locations  of  stores,  state  Fire  War- 
dens, livery  stables,  pack  trains,  garages,  stage 
routes,  etc.  All  these  features  and  data  are  not  put 
upon  one  map ;  usually  a  series  of  maps  are  used  or 
some  of  the  information  is  put  on  charts  or  on  the 
border  of  the  maps.  In  short  all  this  information  is 
put  in  such  form  that  it  is  available  at  the  shortest 
notice  for  emergency  conditions.  It  makes  little 
difference  how  it  is  recorded,  so  long  as  the  informa- 
tion is  available  when  needed. 

Forest  Fire  Organization.  The  forest  fire  or- 
ganization, whether  it  be  on  the  whole  National 
Forest  or  upon  the  Ranger  district,  consists  of  three 
agencies :  the  fire  detection  agencies,  the  fire  report- 
ing agencies,  and  the  fire  fighting  agencies.  All 
these  must  work  in  absolute  harmony  without  inter- 
ruption of  any  kind,  to  obtain  the  maximum  of 


PROTECTION  141 

efficiency.  The  detection  agencies  consist  of  the 
lookout  men,  stationed  at  high,  advantageous 
points  which  overlook  large  areas,  and  the  moving 
patrolmen,  who  are  assigned  to  definite  beats  or  ter- 
ritory which  cannot  be  adequately  reached  by  the 
lookouts.  Lookout  men  live  in  small  cabins  on  the 
tops  of  high  mountains,  and  they  watch  for  fires 
constantly.  In  regions  which  have  very  few  high 
points  and  which  are  not  suited  to  that  method 
of  detection,  moving  patrolmen  are  employed. 
These  men  move  about  on  foot,  on  horseback,  on 
railroad  speeders,  in  automobiles,  or  in  any  other 
conveyance  adapted  to  the  country  they  are  in. 

When  the  detectors  find  a  fire  they  report  it  im- 
mediately to  the  nearest  Forest  Ranger  or  the  For- 
est Supervisor.  The  Forest  Ranger  in  whose  dis- 
trict the  fire  is  located  is  logically  the  first  man  to  be 
informed,  but  telephone  connections  and  other  con- 
ditions sometimes  alter  this  procedure.  Just  be- 
cause a  fire  is  found  in,  we  will  say,  Ranger  district 
number  one,  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the 
Forest  Ranger  of  this  district  is  the  proper  man 
to  be  notified.  The  fire  may  be  at  the  very  outer 
boundary  of  his  district  and  may  be  much  more 
easily  accessible  to  the  Forest  Ranger  in  district 


142       OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

number  two.  In  any  case  it  is  all  arranged  before- 
hand just  exactly  who  shall  be  notified  in  case  of  a 
fire  in  each  and  every  corner  of  a  National  Forest. 
Each  man  in  the  organization  has  his  duties  and  re- 
sponsibilities determined  for  him  in  advance  and  he 
does  his  part  without  being  prodded  or  reminded. 
The  location  of  a  fire  in  the  wild  and  inaccessible 
forest  regions  of  the  West,  which  may  seem  a  very 
simple  matter,  is  determined  in  a  very  ingenious 
manner. 

How  Fires  Are  Located.  The  lookout  man,  as 
well  as  the  Forest  Rangers  and  the  Forest  Super- 
visor, is  provided  with  identical  maps  of  the  For- 
est. These  maps  show  most  of  the  important  fea- 
tures useful  in  fire  protection  work,  including  also 
the  private  lands,  all  government  holdings,  and  the 
public  land  survey.  This  public  land  survey  has 
divided  the  land  surface  into  legal  subdivisions 
known  as  townships,  sections,  and  quarter  sections, 
and  it  is  by  these  and  with  reference  to  these  that 
all  features,  both  natural  and  artificial,  are  located. 
A  township  is  usually  a  square  6  miles  on  a  side, 
containing  36  sections.  Each  section  is  divided  into 
quarter  sections  containing  160  acres  each,  which 
are  further  divided  (though  not  by  law)  into  forty- 


PROTECTION  143 

acre  squares.  The  problem,  therefore,  that  con- 
fronts the  lookout  man  upon  the  discovery  of  a 
forest  fire  is  to  inform  the  Ranger  or  other  Forest 
officer  where  the  fire  is — that  is,  in  what  section  it  is 
located,  if  it  cannot  be  located  with  reference  to 
some  well-known  natural  feature. 

In  order  to  determine  in  what  section  or  quarter 
section  a  fire  is  located,  each  lookout  point  on  the 
Supervisor's  and  Rangers'  fire  maps  has  a  trans- 
parent circular  protractor  mounted  on  it.  (A  pro- 
tractor is  a  device  by  which  angles  are  marked  off; 
it  consists  of  a  circle  upon  whose  arc  the  degrees 
from  0  to  360  are  indicated,  0  degrees  being  equiv- 
alent to  North,  90°  to  East,  180°  to  South  and  270° 
to  West.)  The  center  of  the  protractor  is  the 
lookout  point.  A  piece  of  black  thread  is  fastened 
to  the  center  of  each  lookout  point,  so  that  it  can  be 
stretched  across  the  arc  of  the  circle  and  the  de- 
grees read  off.  The  other  end  of  the  thread  has 
fastened  to  it  a  thumb  tack  or  similar  device,  so  that 
when  the  thread  is  stretched  to  read  a  certain  angle, 
it  can  be  fixed  at  that  angle.  The  maps  of  the 
lookout  men  are  usually  fastened  or  permanently 
mounted  upon  a  table  which  is  oriented  (that  is,  the 
top  of  the  map  is  turned  toward  the  north).  The 


144        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

lookout  men  have  sighting  devices,  usually  ali- 
dades, which  are  placed  on  the  map,  by  means  of 
which  they  sight  at  a  fire;  but  the  bearing  of  the 
fire  is  read  from  the  angles  marked  on  the  edge  of 
the  map,  which  is  in  reality  a  large  protractor. 

By  these  devices  a  fire  is  quickly  and  accurately 
located.  When  the  lookout  man  sees  a  fire,  he  gets 
its  bearing  from  the  map  by  means  of  the  sighting 
device.  He  telephones  this  bearing  to  the  Ranger, 
or,  in  many  cases,  to  the  Supervisor.  Imme- 
diately the  Supervisor  goes  to  his  map,  picks  up 
the  black  thread  attached  to  this  lookout  point, 
stretches  the  string,  and,  having  marked  off  the 
bearing,  pushes  the  thumb  tack  into  the  map.  In 
the  meantime,  another  lookout,  perhaps  two  more, 
have  sighted  the  same  fire.  The  black  threads  from 
the  other  lookout  points  on  the  Supervisor's  map 
are  stretched  and  fixed  in  a  similar  manner.  The 
fire  will  be  found  to  be  at  the  point  where  two  or 
more  of  these  black  threads  intersect.  This  is  only 
one  of  the  many  ways  which  have  been  devised  to 
locate  forest  fires;  there  are  other  methods,  but  all 
are  based  upon  the  same  principle. 

The  Fire  Fighting  Organization.  The  organ- 
ization of  men  who  do  the  actual  fire  suppression 


f 


Figure  42.  A  forest  fire  running  in  dense  underbrush  on  one  of 
the  National  Forests  in  Oregon. 

Figure  43.  Men  in  a  dense  forest  with  heavy  undergrowth  clearing 
away  brush  to  stop  the  fire  as  it  is  running  down  hill.  Crater  Na- 
tional Forest,  Oregon. 


PROTECTION  145 

must  be  an  elastic  one,  adequate  to  meet  the  needs 
of  a  Ranger  district  or  of  a  whole  National  Forest, 
or,  in  some  cases,  of  an  entire  administrative  dis- 
trict, comprising  as  many  as  25  to  30  National 
Forests.  The  Forest  Guards  and  Forest  Rangers 
are  known  as  the  first  line  of  defense  in  this  war 
against  forest  fires.  Upon  them  falls  the  brunt  of 
the  work  of  fire  suppression.  The  second  line  is 
composed  of  local  stockmen,  ranchers,  and  logging 
and  sawmill  crews.  When  these  prove  insufficient 
in  number,  the  large  villages  and  towns  are  called 
upon,  and  the  last  resort  is  the  labor  of  the  cities 
and  the  United  States  Army.  Thus,  in  the  case  of 
a  very  large  fire  the  organization  of  the  Forest 
Service  is  modified  to  cover  not  only  each  and  every 
National  Forest,  but  also  entire  States.  In  case  of 
a  very  large  fire,  every  available  man  from  each 
Forest  is  sent  to  take  his  place  in  the  organization. 
Expert  fire  fighters  are  sent  direct  to  the  fire. 
Other  Forest  officers  are  sent  to  the  large  towns  and 
villages  to  act  as  quartermasters.  These  men  hire 
fire  fighters,  entrain  them,  and  fill  orders  for  food, 
bedding,  tools,  and  other  equipment.  Other  quar- 
termasters at  the  scene  of  the  fire  check  shipments 
of  supplies,  check  the  time  of  fire  fighters,  approve 


146        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

accounts,  hire  transportation,  and  perform  similar 
duties.  Special  disbursing  agents  are  sent  to  the 
scene  to  pay  the  men.  In  short,  everything  is  done 
to  dispatch  as  quickly  as  possible  the  necessary  men, 
food  and  equipment  to  the  fire,  and  to  do  it  in 
accordance  with  the  prearranged  plan  for  such 
emergencies. 

Forest  Fire  Cooperation.  A  very  important 
part  of  the  plan  of  fire  protection  on  the  National 
Forests  are  the  cooperative  agreements  entered  into 
between  the  Forest  Service  and  private  individuals 
or  companies.  Such  cooperation  may  be  in  the 
form  of  building  improvements  for  fire  suppression, 
furnishing  men  in  case  of  fire,  furnishing  lookouts 
or  patrols,  furnishing  equipment,  and,  in  fact,  in 
connection  with  any  of  the  necessary  means  for 
fighting  fire.  This  cooperation  has  been  of  mu- 
tual benefit.  One  National  Forest  may  cooperate 
with  one  or  more  neighboring  Forests  or  with 
sawmills,  power  plants,  logging  camps,  or  railroad 
companies.  Cooperation  may  also  be  with  a  well- 
organized  Forest  Protection  Association,  of  which 
there  are  a  large  number  in  the  Western  States. 
These  cooperative  agencies  agree  to  send  a  large 
force  of  their  men  to  fires  on  the  National  Forest 


PROTECTION  147 

in  their  vicinity,  and  the  Forest  Service  reciprocates 
by  sending  men  for  fires  occurring  on  their  lands, 
which  may  threaten  National  Forest  timber. 
Often  cooperative  agencies  enter  into  agreement 
to  build  jointly  with  the  Forest  Service  certain 
improvements,  such  as  telephone  lines,  lookout 
towers,  or  trails,  which  will  benefit  public  fire  pro- 
tection as  well  as  private.  Many  sawmills  and  log- 
ging companies  who  operate  on  or  near  the  Na- 
tional Forests  have  agreements  with  the  Service, 
by  which  they  suspend  all  operations  and  send  all 
their  help  to  fires  which  threaten  National  Forest 
timber.  All  timber  sale  contracts  of  the  Forest 
Service  provide  for  cooperative  fire  protection. 

Fighting  Forest  Fires.  The  most  important  re- 
quirements for  successful  fire  suppression  are: 
quick  arrival  after  discovery,  adequate  forces  of 
men,  proper  equipment,  thorough  organization  on 
the  fire  line,  skill  in  attacking,  and  careful,  sys- 
tematic patrol  after  the  fire  is  thought  to  be  out. 
All  fire3,  whether  large  or  small,  require  generals 
to  lead  the  attacking  forces,  and  the  strategy  of 
fire  fighting  can  only  be  learned  after  long  expe- 
rience on  the  fire  line.  A  cool,  level-headed  man  is 
the  greatest  necessity  in  an  emergency,  for  it  is  as 


148        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

disastrous  to  get  too  many  men  as  it  is  too  few.  A 
few  men  that  know  how  to  attack  a  fire  are  worth 
a  great  deal  more  than  a  great  many  that  are  in- 
experienced. 

There  are  different  kinds  of  fires,  depending 
upon  their  size,  their  intensity,  and  the  nature  of  the 
country  in  which  they  are  burning.  And  there  are 
as  many  different  methods  of  fighting  fire  as  there 
are  kinds  of  fires.  Some  fires,  such  as  grass  fires  or 
those  burning  in  the  needles  and  litter  in  the  forest, 
can  be  extinguished  directly  by  being  smothered  or 
beaten  out.  For  this  purpose  Rangers  sometimes 
use  their  saddle  blankets,  when  nothing  else  is 
handy,  but  usually  wet  gunny  sacks,  boughs,  and 
tree  branches  are  used.  Often,  if  it  is  available, 
sand  or  dirt  is  thrown  on  the  fire  with  a  shovel. 
Surface  fires  are  a  little  more  difficult  to  extinguish. 
They  are  more  intense  and  more  swift  and  consume 
brush,  young  growth,  and  fallen  dry  trees.  These 
usually  cannot  be  attacked  directly,  but  must  be 
controlled  indirectly  by  the  building  of  a  trench 
or  a  fire  break,  or  by  a  system  of  back  firing. 
Trenches  are  fire  breaks  in  miniature,  usually  from 
one  to  several  feet  wide.  Fire  breaks  or  fire  lines 
are  broad  belts  from  30  to  50  feet  wide,  which  are 


Figure  44.     Fire  in  a  Lodgepole  pine  forest  in  Colorado.     Arapaho 
National  Forest,  Colorado 

Figure  45.     A  mountain  fire  in  "Chaparral,"  five  hours  after  it  started. 
Pasadena,  California 


PROTECTION  149 

cleared  of  inflammable  material,  not  so  much  to  stop 
the  fire  when  it  reaches  this  belt  as  to  furnish  a 
safe  area  from  which  fire  can  be  fought  and,  most 
of  all,  from  which  back  firing  can  be  started.  These 
lines  or  belts  are  usually  built  along  ridges.  If  a 
fire  starts  on  the  lower  slope  of  a  mountain  and  the 
wind  carries  it  up  the  mountain  toward  the  fire  line, 
the  only  hope  of  stopping  the  fire  at  the  top  of  the 
ridge  at  the  fire  line  is  to  start  fires  on  the  top  of 
the  ridge,  which  will  burn  down  the  slope  and  meet 
the  original  fire  coming  up.  In  rare  cases,  as,  for 
instance,  in  the  Idaho  fires  of  1910,  the  fires  get  to 
be  so  large  and  swift  that  all  methods  of  attack 
prove  futile  and  the  only  salvation  is  in  natural 
barriers,  such  as  rivers,  or  a  change  of  the  wind,  or 
rain,  to  extinguish  them. 

In  all  fire  fighting  work,  the  plan  is  to  surround 
the  fire  (if  it  cannot  be  beaten  or  smothered  out)  by 
a  trench,  fire  line,  or  fire  break,  and  to  prevent  the 
fire  from  spreadng.  In  this  kind  of  work,  shovels, 
spades,  mattocks,  rakes,  and  hoes  are  used  to  move 
the  soil;  saws  and  axes  are  used  to  remove  fallen 
trees  from  the  fire  line,  and  in  some  cases  plows, 
dynamite,  and  other  implements  are  employed. 


150        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

PROTECTION    AGAINST    TRESPASS^    FOREST    INSECTS, 
EROSION,   AND   OTHER  AGENCIES 

While  the  protection  of  the  Forest  resources  from 
fire  is  probably  the  most  important  phase  of  forest 
protection,  it  is  not  the  only  one  by  any  means. 
The  National  Forest  force  also  protects  the  Forest 
resources  from  trespass,  from  insect  damages,  and 
from  tree  diseases.  Also  water  supply  for  domestic 
use,  for  irrigation,  waterpower,  and  navigation 
must  be  protected,  and  the  public  health  must  be 
safeguarded  against  the  pollution  of  the  streams 
emerging  from  the  Forests.  It  is  also  the  duty  of 
Forest  officers,  in  cooperation  with  the  state  au- 
thorities, to  protect  game,  fish,  and  birds  from  il- 
legal practices. 

Trespass.  The  Act  of  June  4,  1897,  authorizes 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  to  make  rules  and 
regulations  for  the  occupancy,  use  and  protection  of 
the  National  Forests,  and  provides  that  any  viola- 
tion of  such  rules  and  regulations  shall  be  punish- 
able by  a  fine  or  imprisonment  or  both.  This  and 
later  acts  provide  for  fines  or  imprisonment  for  all 
violations  of  the  regulations  governing  National 
Forests.  The  violation  of  these  regulations  consti- 


PROTECTION  151 

tutes  trespass,  and  these  may  be  either  fire,  timber, 
grazing,  occupancy  or  property  trespass,  depending 
upon  the  offense.  Since  the  United  States  has  all 
the  civil  rights  and  remedies  for  trespass  possessed 
by  private  individuals,  it  may  bring  action  to  re- 
cover damages  resulting  from  trespass  or  breach 
of  contract. 

Fire  trespass  includes  the  following  offenses :  set- 
ting fire  to  timber,  brush  or  grass;  building  camp 
fires  in  dangerous  places  where  they  are  hard  to 
extinguish;  or  leaving  camp  fires  without  com- 
pletely extinguishing  them.  The  various  railroads 
that  cross  the  National  Forests  are  one  of  the 
most  frequent  offenders  in  that  the  sparks  issuing 
from  the  locomotives  or  the  hot  ashes  dropping  from 
the  fire  box  set  fire  to  National  Forest  timber.  The 
railroads  are  required  to  use  every  precaution  to 
prevent  such  fires,  but  many  of  them  are  started,  re- 
sulting in  damage  suits  by  the  Government.  The 
damages  cover  not  only  the  merchantable  timber 
and  forage  destroyed,  but  damages  are  also  col- 
lected for  young,  immature  growth,  which  at  first 
thought  might  seem  to  have  little  or  no  value.  But 
the  courts  have  held  that  while  the  young,  unmer- 
chantable trees  have  very  little  value  now,  they 


152        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

have  a  great  value  as  the  basis  for  a  future  crop  of 
timber.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  the  United  States 
versus  the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy  Rail- 
road, in  1910,  for  fire  trespass  on  the  Black  Hills 
National  Forest,  caused  by  sparks  from  the  loco- 
motives operated  by  the  company,  the  damages  in- 
cluded $17,900  for  young  growth.  Also,  in  the 
case  of  the  United  States  versus  the  Great  North- 
ern Railroad,  in  1911,  in  which  suit  was  brought 
upon  the  negligence  (causing  fires  to  start)  of  the 
defendant  company  on  their  right-of-way,  which 
fires  subsequently  spread  to  the  Blackfeet  National 
Forest,  damages  included  the  destruction  of  a  great 
many  immature  trees,  the  value  of  which  was  esti- 
mated on  the  basis  of  their  value  at  maturity  dis- 
counted to  date.  It  is  significant  that  this  case 
never  went  to  trial;  the  defendant  paid  damages 
and  costs  without  argument. 

Under  timber  trespass  are  included  the  follow- 
ing acts :  the  cutting,  killing,  girdling,  or  otherwise 
damaging  trees;  the  cutting  of  timber  under  sale 
contract  or  permit  before  it  is  marked  by  a  Forest 
officer;  the  removal  of  timber  before  it  is  scaled, 
measured,  or  counted  by  a  Forest  officer;  and  the 
fraudulent  stamping  of  any  timber  belonging  to  the 


PROTECTION  153 

United  States  with  the  regulation  marking  tools  or 
similar  device.  Under  grazing  trespass  are  in- 
cluded such  acts  as :  grazing  stock  on  National  For- 
est lands  without  permit;  grazing  stock  on  areas 
which  are  designated  as  closed  to  grazing;  driving 
stock  across  a  National  Forest  without  permit ;  and 
refusal  to  remove  stock  upon  instructions  from  an 
authorized  Forest  officer  when  an  injury  is  being 
done  to  the  National  Forests  by  reason  of  the  im- 
proper handling  of  the  stock.  The  use  of  National 
Forest  land  without  a  permit  for  any  purpose  for 
which  special  use  permits  are  required  constitutes 
occupancy  trespass.  But  traveling,  temporary 
camping,  bunting,  surveying,  or  prospecting  may 
be  carried  on  without  permit,  and  camp  wood  and 
forage  for  stock  used  in  connection  with  such  ac- 
tivities may  be  taken  free  of  charge.  The  unau- 
thorized appropriation,  damage,  or  destruction  of 
property  belonging  to  the  United  States,  which  is 
used  in  the  administration  of  the  National  Forests, 
also  constitutes  trespass. 

Innocent  trespass  is  usually  settled  amicably  be- 
tween the  trespasser  and  the  Supervisor.  If  the 
violation  of  the  timber,  grazing,  or  land  regulations 
was  due  to  a  misunderstanding  and  was  not  of  a 


154        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

willful  character,  a  permit  is  issued  and  the  tres- 
passer pays  for  the  timber  or  special  use,  as  under 
regulation.  Fire  and  property  trespass  cases  sel- 
dom can  be  construed  as  innocent,  hence  in  most 
cases  such  offenses  result  in  litigation. 

Forest  Insects.  Protection  against  forest  in- 
sects is  carried  out  in  cooperation  with  the  Bureau 
of  Entomology  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

An  essential  part  of  good  forest  protection  is  the 
work  of  locating  and  reporting  evidences  of  insect 
depredations.  There  are  scores  of  insects  which 
are  constantly  working  in  the  forests,  either  injur- 
ing or  killing  live  trees  or  attacking  the  wood  of 
trees  after  they  have  been  killed.  Weevils  kill 
young  shoots  on  trees  and  destroy  tree  seeds ;  bark 
beetles  and  timber  beetles  infest  the  bark,  girdle  the 
tree  and  destroy  the  wood;  and  various  borers  and 
timber  worms  attack  seasoned  and  unseasoned  for- 
est products  and  destroy  the  wood  in  the  forest  after 
it  has  been  cut  down  and  sawed  into  lumber.  The 
greatest  annual  loss  by  insects  is  caused  not  so 
much  by  conspicuous  local  outbreaks  as  in  the  sus- 
tained annual  loss  of  scattered  merchantable  trees. 
Local  infestations  often  kill  a  large  percentage  of 
trees  on  an  area,  but  these  outbreaks  are  easily  seen ; 


PROTECTION  155 

the  scattered  infestations  that  kill  a  tree  or  two  here 
and  there  over  large  forest  areas  are  not  so  notice- 
able, but,  taken  all  together,  add  up  to  a  startling 
total.* 

The  task  of  locating  and  reporting  insect  infesta- 
tions falls  upon  the  Forest  Ranger  and  other  field 
men  of  the  Forest  Service.  Since  the  Rangers  are 
practically  the  only  class  of  Forest  officers  that 
visit  all  parts  of  a  National  Forest  during  each 
field  season,  the  Supervisor  relies  mostly  on  them  to 
report  upon  insect  infestations.  In  riding  to  and 
from  his  work,  while  on  fire  patrol,  while  going  for 
mail  and  supplies,  while  attending  to  the  timber, 
grazing  and  other  business  of  his  district,  the  Ran- 
ger does  a  good  deal  of  traveling  and  covers  practi- 
cally every  part  of  his  district.  These  are  good  op- 
portunities to  watch  for  fresh  outbreaks  of  insects, 
and  the  wide-awake,  progressive  Ranger  never 
misses  such  chances.  If  he  sees  reddish-brown 
masses  of  pitch  and  sawdust  on  the  bark  of  a  tree  he 
immediately  recognizes  it  as  the  work  of  insects.  Or 
perhaps  he  may  see  a  pine  or  a  spruce  tree  with  all 
its  needles  turned  yellow.  He  knows  then  that  this 
tree  was  girdled  by  bark  beetles  very  recently,  prob- 
ably during  the  previous  summer.  A  tree  whose 


156        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

needles  had  turned  red  would  indicate  to  him  that 
the  infestation  was  more  than  a  year  old,  since 
trees  attacked  in  the  spring  of  one  year  usually  do 
not  show  the  results  until  the  following  summer. 
These  two  stages  are  known  by  the  trained  ento- 
mologist as  the  "yellow-top"  and  the  "red-top" 
stages  respectively.  The  latter  is  followed  by  the 
"black-top"  stage.  In  this  stage,  insect  infested 
trees  stand  out  very  conspicuously  as  leafless,  gray 
or  black  snags,  and  they  tell  the  story  of  the  work 
of  bark  beetles  that  happened  years  ago. 

Probably  the  first  external  evidence  of  the  attack 
of  a  bark  beetle  upon  living  trees  with  normal  green 
foliage,  is  the  presence  of  pitch  tubes  upon  the 
outer  bark.  These  are  small,  reddish-brown  (later 
becoming  grayish-white)  masses  of  pitch  and  saw- 
dust, which  exude  from  the  small  cylindrical  en- 
trance made  by  the  adult  beetle  where  it  bores 
through  the  bark  to  begin  its  egg  tunnel.  Each 
tube  represents  the  entrance  of  one  or  more  of  these 
beetles.  But  we  must  follow  these  egg  tunnels  fur- 
ther, to  learn  how  the  actual  damage  is  done  to  the 
tree.  As  soon  as  the  bark  beetle  has  made  its 
entrance  through  the  bark,  it  starts  to  work  up 
through  the  live  bark  and  cambium  of  the  tree, 


PROTECTION  157 

forming  a  tunnel  but  little  larger  than  the  diameter 
of  the  beetle,  which  is  known  as  the  egg  gallery, 
These  egg  galleries  vary  in  shape  from  straight  to 
winding,  and  in  length  from  ten  to  forty  inches. 
As  a  rule,  male  and  female  beetles  work  together  in 
one  gallery,  and  the  eggs  are  deposited  along  the 
sides  of  the  gallery,  often  in  little  pockets.  When 
the  tunneling  and  egg-laying  process  of  the  adult 
beetles  is  completed,  their  activity  ceases,  and  they 
are  usually  found  dead  at  the  upper  end  of  their 
galleries.  The  larvae  hatch  and  begin  their  work 
by  burrowing  across  the  cambium  at  right  angles  to 
the  egg  galleries.  The  complete  girdling  of  the 
cambium  layer  is  not  accomplished  until  the  larvae 
have  completed  their  work,  and  the  numerous  larval 
galleries,  by  joining  one  another,  form  a  complete 
gallery  around  the  cambium  of  the  tree,  thus  cut- 
ting off  the  food  supply  which  is  made  in  the  leaves 
of  the  tree,  from  the  lower  portion  of  the  tree, 
namely  the  roots.  Since  the  roots  cannot  live  with- 
out nourishment,  the  tree  dies.  As  soon  as  the 
larvae  have  completed  their  development  they  pu- 
pate. Later  they  develop  into  adult  beetles. 
These  adult  beetles  issue  forth  in  swarms  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  to  attack  new  trees. 


158        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

The  control  of  insect  pests  is  a  difficult  matter. 
On  areas  where  insect  depredations  are  conspicuous 
and  are  liable  to  spread  to  nearby  valuable  timber, 
control  measures  are  undertaken  in  cooperation 
with  experts  from  the  Bureau  of  Entomology.  In 
these  control  pro j  ects,  crews  of  men  fell  the  infested 
trees,  strip  the  bark  from  them,  and  burn  the  bark 
(usually  at  a  time  of  the  year  when  the  young 
broods  of  beetles  are  still  in  the  bark,  namely,  fall 
or  winter) .  Trap  trees  are  sometimes  resorted  to. 
In  this  method,  trees  are  girdled  with  an  ax  and 
thereby  weakened  to  such  a  degree  that  beetles  are 
attracted  to  it.  After  such  a  tree  has  become  thor- 
oughly infested  in  this  manner,  it  is  cut  down  and 
burned.  In  the  case  of  a  large,  conspicuous  infes- 
tation, an  insect  reconnoissance  is  made,  in  order  to 
obtain  an  estimate  of  the  percentage  of  trees  that 
have  been  killed  by  insects.  When  it  is  possible, 
the  timber  is  immediately  sold.  For  example,  on 
the  Lassen  National  Forest,  the  writer  several  years 
ago  made  such  an  estimate  of  an  infestation  caused 
by  the  mountain  pine  beetle,  covering  over  100,000 
acres.  The  reconnoissance  showed  that  about  35 
per  cent,  of  the  trees  above  12  inches  in  diameter 
had  been  killed.  The  killed  timber  was  subse- 


PROTECTION  159 

quently  utilized  for  telephone  and  telegraph  poles. 

There  are  many  administrative  measures  which 
are  practiced  on  the  National  Forests,  which  aim  to 
prevent  insect  infestation.  The  prevention  and 
suppression  of  forest  fires,  which  form  infection 
courts  for  insects,  is  probably  the  most  important 
one.  In  all  timber  sales,  old  dead  snags  and  slash- 
ing, which  are  breeding  places  for  insects,  are  dis- 
posed of.  Through  free  use  and  timber  sales,  in- 
sect-killed timber  is  disposed  of  and  the  loss  due 
to  insects  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  besides  in  many 
cases  destroying  the  young  insect  broods. 

Tree  Diseases.  In  almost  every  administrative 
district  there  is  a  Consulting  Pathologist,  connected 
with  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Pathology  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  who  has  charge  of  all  work 
dealing  with  the  eradication  of  tree  diseases. 

A  tree  disease  is  really  any  condition  that  inter- 
feres with  the  normal  functioning  of  the  tree,  be  this 
condition  caused  by  fungi,  mistletoe,  fumes,  smoke, 
frost,  sunscald,  drought  or  excess  of  water  in  the 
soil.  Parasitic  fungi  and  mistletoes  cause  most  of 
the  tree  diseases.  Leaf  diseases,  by  killing  a 
greater  part  of  the  foliage,  destroy  the  very  organs 
in  which  food  for  the  growing  tissues  is  prepared. 


160        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

Diseases  of  the  bark  intercept  the  flow  of  food  com- 
ing down  in  the  bark  from  the  leaves.  Diseases  of 
the  sapwood  cut  off  the  water  supply,  which  is 
pumped  upward  from  the  roots.  Those  that  attack 
the  roots  also  affect  the  water  supply  of  the  tree. 
Diseases  of  flowers  and  seeds  destroy  the  faculty 
of  reproduction. 

Certain  parasites  are  able  to  enter  the  youngest 
parts  of  trees,  twigs  and  leaves  directly,  but  the 
majority  of  the  fungi  causing  decay  of  the  wood 
can  get  into  the  interior  of  the  living  tree  only  by 
way  of  a  pin  knot  or  wound.  For  this  reason, 
every  wound  caused  by  lightning,  by  fire,  by  man, 
or  by  animals,  constitutes  a  menace  to  infection. 
Many  coniferous  trees  cover  their  wounds  by  an 
aseptic  coat  of  pitch,  which  is  very  effective  in 
preventing  the  germination  and  growth  of  fungus 
spores.  But  the  less  resinous  conifers  and  the 
hardwood  trees  do  not  cover  their  wounds  very  ef- 
fectively; large  wounds  are  not  covered  at  all. 
Upon  exposure  by  a  wound,  the  sapwood  just  un- 
derneath the  bark  dies,  dries  out,  and  checks. 
Spores  of  parasitic  fungi  enter  the  cracks,  ger- 
minate and  infect  the  heartwood.  The  spores  of  a 
heartwood-inhabiting  fungus  cannot  germinate  and 


PROTECTION  161 

thrive  unless  they  fall  upon  the  heartwood  of  the 
tree.  In  this  way  certain  diseases  of  the  heartwood, 
which  result  in  rot  or  decay,  can  very  frequently 
be  traced  directly  to  fire  scars,  lightning  scars,  spike 
tops,  broken  limbs  or  branches,  and  other  mechan- 
ical destruction  caused  by  lightning,  fire,  storms, 
cloudbursts,  or  heavy  snow-fall. 

Fire  as  a  cause  of  wounds  is  responsible  for 
more  cases  of  heartrot  than  all  other  injuries  taken 
together.  For  this  reason  the  protection  of  forests 
from  fire  is  the  most  important  preventive  measure 
that  can  be  taken  to  eradicate  tree  diseases.  In 
fact,  the  best  way  of  controlling  diseases  is  by  pre- 
venting them,  and  the  Forest  officers  are  endeavor- 
ing to  eliminate  any  danger  to  the  health  of  the 
forest,  to  prevent  the  injury  of  the  trees,  and  to 
establish  healthy  conditions  for  their  growth.  This 
is  forest  hygiene,  and  it  bears  the  same  relation  to 
the  trees  and  forests  as  personal  hygiene  and  com- 
munity sanitation  do  to  persons  and  communities. 

It  is  impossible  to  grow  a  sound  and  thrifty  forest 
for  future  generations  if  there  are  unhealthful  con- 
ditions in  the  forest  that  are  a  constant  menace  to 
the  trees.  The  first  step  in  this  hygienic  work  is 
close  observation  on  the  part  of  the  Forest  officers. 


162        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

The  next  important  step  is  to  prevent  the  infection 
and  infestation  of  sound  trees  by  getting  rid  of  all 
diseased  and  insect-infested  living  and  dying  trees. 
By  means  of  timber  sales  and  free  use,  Forest  offi- 
cers very  materially  help  in  establishing  healthy  con- 
ditions on  the  National  Forests.  There  is  a  clause 
in  most  timber  sale  contracts  which  requires  the  cut- 
ting by  the  purchaser  of  all  snags  and  other  un- 
healthy trees  on  the  area.  This  measure  not  only 
eliminates  undesirable  trees  from  a  hygienic  stand- 
point, but  it  also  makes  it  possible  to  utilize  the 
merchantable  timber  left  in  undesirable  trees,  which 
would  otherwise  go  to  waste.  On  timber  sales,  For- 
est officers  who  do  the  marking  leave  for  reproduc- 
tion only  such  trees  as  are  perfectly  sound  and 
healthy.  Mistletoe  infested  trees,  especially,  are 
marked  for  cutting,  for  neither  in  plant  nor  in  ani- 
mal life  can  healthy  offspring  be  expected  to  de- 
velop under  unhealthful  conditions. 

Water  Supply.  Undoubtedly  the  greatest  value 
of  the  mountain  forests  of  the  West,  most  of  which 
are  within  the  National  Forests,  lies  in  their  influ- 
ence upon  the  regularity  of  the  water  supply.  In 
many  States  these  mountains  afford  the  only  water 
supply  for  domestic  use,  for  irrigation,  and  for  the 


PROTECTION  163 

development  of  power.  The  future  development 
of  the  entire  region  depends,  therefore,  upon  a  reg- 
ular water  supply.  It  is  not  so  much  the  amount 
of  water  as  the  manner  in  which  it  flows  from  the 
mountains  that  is  important.  To  insure  this  regu- 
larity, the  vegetative  covering  is  an  important  fac- 
tor. For  this  reason,  Congress  made  the  preserva- 
tion of  conditions  favorable  to  stream  flow  one  of 
the  principal  objects  in  the  establishment  and  ad- 
ministration of  the  National  Forests. 

Many  of  my  readers  who  have  lived  out-of-doors 
a  great  deal  have  learned  by  common  observation 
the  simple  problem  of  how  the  forest  regulates 
stream  flow.  Any  one  who  has  been  in  a  treeless 
region  after  a  heavy  rainstorm  can  recall  how  sud- 
denly the  streams  swell  and  flood  their  banks,  and 
how  soon  these  same  streams  return  to  their  former 
flow.  On  the  other  hand,  a  severe  rainstorm  in  a 
forested  region  will  hardly  have  an  appreciable 
effect  upon  the  streams.  The  difference  is  not  very 
hard  to  explain.  In  a  treeless  region  there  are  no 
natural  obstacles  which  might  delay  or  prevent  the 
raindrops  from  reaching  the  ground.  The  soil  is 
usually  hard  and  dry,  and  the  water  runs  off  as 
though  from  a  gable  roof.  In  a  forest,  we  well 


164        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

know,  the  crowns  of  the  trees  intercept  most  of  the 
rain  that  falls;  very  little  strikes  the  ground  di- 
rectly. The  rain  that  strikes  the  crown  is  dissi- 
pated on  the  leaves  or  needles,  on  the  twigs  and 
branches,  and  on  the  trunk.  It  must  travel  a  long 
way  before  it  reaches  the  ground,  and  all  this  delay 
helps  in  preventing  a  rapid  run-off  or  flood.  The 
soil  in  the  forest  is  covered  by  a  living  ground  cover 
of  flowers,  shrubs  and  young  trees,  and  by  a  dead 
cover  composed  of  leaves,  twigs,  dead  branches, 
fallen  trees,  all  of  which  interrupt  the  raindrop's 
journey  to  the  ground.  Even  after  the  rain 
reaches  the  ground,  only  a  small  part  of  it  goes  off 
as  surface  run-off.  The  soil  in  the  forest  is  loose 
and  full  of  holes  and  channels  made  by  decaying 
roots,  earth  worms,  etc.,  so  that  the  water  is  ab- 
sorbed as  fast  as  it  reaches  the  soil.  Also  the  soil 
in  the  forest  contains  a  large  amount  of  organic 
matter,  resulting  from  decaying  leaves  and 
branches,  and  this  organic  matter  acts  as  a  great 
sponge,  because  it  is  capable  of  holding  several 
times  its  own  weight  of  water.  As  a  result  of  the 
living  and  dead  ground  cover,  the  crown  cover,  and 
the  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  the  rainfall  is  fed  to 
the  streams  gradually  through  weeks  and  months, 


PROTECTION  165 

instead  of  a  few  hours,  and  the  nearby  rivers  have 
a  steady,  equable  flow,  instead  of  alternate  stages 
of  floods  and  low  water. 

Closely  bound  up  with  the  protection  of  water- 
sheds is  the  erosion  problem.  Without  a  forest 
cover,  rain  runs  off  mountain  slopes  very  rapidly, 
often  carrying  with  it  silt  and  sand,  and,  in  severe 
floods,  even  rocks  and  bowlders.  A  well  known 
physical  law  states  that  the  carrying  capacity  of 
a  stream  increases  as  the  sixth  power  of  its  velocity. 
In  other  words,  double  the  velocity  of  a  stream  and 
you  have  multiplied  its  carrying  power  by  64;  in- 
crease its  velocity  ten  times,  and  you  multiply  its 
carrying  power  by  a  million.  The  delay  caused  by 
the  forest  cover  in  each  raindrop's  journey  down  a 
mountain  side  not  only  prevents  floods,  but  also 
preserves  the  fertility  of  the  fields  in  the  valleys 
below. 

Many  streams  in  the  West  carry  such  enormous 
amounts  of  silt  that  the  storage  capacity  of  reser- 
voirs has  been  seriously  impaired,  even  within  a 
comparatively  short  time.  Then,  also,  there  is  the 
added  difficulty  and  expense  of  keeping  the  diver- 
sion works — the  ditches  and  canals — free  from  an 
excess  of  this  material.  Studies  which  have  been 


166        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

carried  on  to  determine  in  what  way  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  National  Forests  can  keep  the  de- 
structive processes  of  erosion  at  a  minimum  have 
shown  that  the  balance  between  the  stability  of  the 
soil  and  rapid  erosion  on  many  slopes  is  so  delicate 
that  only  a  slight  abuse  may  result  in  complete  loss 
of  the  fertile  top  soil  and  permanent  changes  in  the 
character  of  the  vegetation. 

In  August,  1909,  the  town  of  Ephraim,  on  the 
Manti  National  Forest,  Utah,  experienced  a  disas- 
trous flood  from  Ephraim  canyon,  which  was  at- 
tributed in  part  to  the  overgrazed  condition  on  the 
watershed.  An  examination  made  the  next  spring 
clearly  demonstrated  that  the  severity  of  the  flood 
was  a  direct  result  of  deterioration  of  forest,  brush, 
and  grass  cover,  due  to  overgrazing  during  a  long 
period  of  years.  The  canyon  was  therefore  closed 
to  grazing  as  an  immediate  protective  measure. 
Plans  were  thereafter  made  to  restore  the  forest 
cover  of  the  canyon  by  planting. 

In  this  kind  of  protection  work,  as  in  the  case  of 
forest  fires,  it  has  been  found  that  preventive  meas- 
ures are  much  more  effective  and  much  less  costly 
than  remedial  measures.  The  regulations  under 


PROTECTION  167 

which  the  Forests  are  administered  give  the  Secre- 
tary of  Agriculture  power  to  institute  preventive 
measures.  To  insure  the  sufficiency  and  purity  of 
the  water  supply  of  a  municipality  or  of  an  irriga- 
tion district,  or  to  prevent  floods  and  snowslides,  the 
use  of  watersheds  for  grazing,  timber,  special  uses, 
or  settlement  is  especially  restricted  when  such  re- 
striction is  found  to  be  necessary.  On  steep  grass 
or  timber-covered  mountain  slopes  both  grazing  and 
timber  sales  are  prohibited,  if  necessary. 

Public  Health.  From  the  relation  which  the 
National  Forests  bear  to  the  streams  that  issue  from 
them,  it  will  be  seen  that  they  may  exert  a  great 
influence  upon  the  health  and  general  welfare  of 
the  communities  in  the  valleys  below.  All  persons 
either  permanently  or  temporarily  camped  upon 
National  Forest  land  are  liable  to  trespass  pro- 
ceedings if  unsanitary  conditions  result  from  their 
presence.  All  camp  refuse  must  be  disposed  of 
either  by  burying  or  burning.  This  regulation  ap- 
plies to  hunting  and  fishing  parties,  as  well  as  to 
large  logging  camps,  sawmills,  and  construction 
camps  on  National  Forest  lands.  Thus  the  regula- 
tions strictly  guard  against  the  pollution  of  the 


168       OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

water  supply  of  the  people  who  live  in  the  large 
towns  and  cities,  and  also  those  who  live  on  the 
Forests  or  near  them.  The  watersheds  tributary  to 
many  of  the  large  western  cities  and  towns  are 
under  special  protection  by  the  Forest  Service. 
Under  this  sanitary  regulation,  it  is  possible  to 
maintain  such  control  of  them  as  will  greatly  reduce 
the  danger  of  typhoid  and  other  enteric  diseases. 

Violation  of  Game  Laws.  Wild  game,  fish  and 
birds  add  materially  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  Na- 
tional Forests  by  the  public,  and  their  protection 
and  preservation  is  a  duty  of  Forest  officers.  Al- 
though this  duty  rests  primarily  with  the  State 
the  Forest  Service  assists,  as  far  as  practicable,  in 
the  protection  of  game  on  the  National  Forests 
from  illegal  practices.  Forest  Service  officials  are 
at  the  same  time  State  Game  Wardens.  In  the 
event  of  a  violation  of  the  state  game  laws,  they 
either  apprehend  the  offender  or  report  the  matter 
to  the  proper  state  official. 

Various  kinds  of  game  and  bird  refuges  may  be 
included  within  National  Forests,  depending  upon 
whether  they  are  created  by  specific  acts  of  the 
State  Legislature  or  by  Acts  of  Congress.  In 
these  refuges,  hunting,  trapping,  willfully  disturb- 


PROTECTION  169 

ing,  or  killing  any  game  or  bird  is  prohibited. 
Whether  the  violation  occurs  in  the  state  game 
refuge  or  the  national  refuge,  the  Forest  officer  has 
authority  to  arrest  the  offender  without  warrant. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  SALE  AND  RENTAL  OF 
NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES 

The  timber,  the  pasture,  the  water  and  mineral 
resources  and  the  land  in  the  National  Forests 
are  for  the  use  of  the  people,  and  they  may  be 
obtained  for  legitimate  use  from  the  local  Forest 
officers  without  delay.  In  fact,  the  Forest  Service 
is  doing  all  it  can  to  encourage  all  kinds  of  business 
which  depends  upon  National  Forest  resources. 

THE  SALE  AND   DISPOSAL   OF   NATIONAL   FOREST 
TIMBER 

There  has  been  a  steady  increase  in  the  amount 
and  value  of  the  timber  cut  on  the  National  Forests. 
During  the  fiscal  year  1917  over  700,000,000  feet 
of  timber,  valued  at  almost  $1,500,000,  was  cut, 
while  almost  three  times  as  much  was  sold.  Most 
of  this  was  cut  in  the  States  of  Montana,  Oregon, 
Idaho,  Washington,  California  and  Arizona. 

All  mature  timber  on  the  National  Forests  which 

170 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     171 

may  be  cut  with  benefit  and  in  accordance  with  cer- 
tain well-established  forestry  principles,  is  for  sale 
and  is  advertised  and  offered  as  demand  arises. 
The  outstanding  feature  of  government  timber 
sales  is  the  fact  that  only  the  stumpage  is  sold,  the 
title  of  the  land  remaining  with  the  Government. 
The  timber  is  sold  in  any  quantity,  so  long  as  the 
sale  is  in  accordance  with  well-established  policy. 
Large  sales  require  a  large  initial  investment  for 
constructing  a  railroad  or  other  means  for  taking 
out  the  timber,  and  may  even  require  the  construc- 
tion of  a  common  carrier  from  the  market  to  com- 
paratively inaccessible  regions. 

Government  Timber  Sale  Policy.  The  National 
Forest  timber  sale  policy,  first  of  all,  aims  to  pre- 
vent the  loss  of  this  valuable  public  property 
through  forest  fires.  This  phase  of  the  policy,  how- 
ever, is  covered  under  the  chapter  on  protection. 
Next,  it  aims  to  utilize  the  ripe  timber  which  can 
be  marketed  and  to  cut  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  insure 
the  restocking  of  the  land  with  young  timber  and 
the  continuance  of  forest  production.  The  price  at 
which  timber  is  sold  represents,  as  required  by 
statute,  the  appraised  market  value  and  a  proper 
return  to  the  public  which  owns  it.  It  is  disposed 


172        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

of  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  its  speculative  ac- 
quisition and  holding,  and  to  prevent  monopoly. 

National  Forest  timber  has  found  its  way  into 
both  the  general,  far  distant  market,  and  the  local 
market.  But  it  is  the  aim  of  the  Forest  Service  to 
first  of  all  provide  for  the  requirements  of  local  com- 
munities and  industries,  including  the  free  use  and 
sale  at  cost  to  settlers  as  authorized  by  statute.  It 
is  also  the  aim  of  the  Forest  Service  policy  to  make 
timberlands  of  agricultural  value  available  for  set- 
tlement under  conditions  which  prevent  speculative 
acquisition  but  encourage  permanent  and  genuine 
farming.  According  to  this  policy,  land  which  at 
the  present  time  is  covered  with  a  good  stand  of 
timber  and  which  has  been  shown  to  have  a  greater 
value  for  agricultural  purposes  is  cleared  as  soon  as 
a  bona  fide  sale  can  be  consummated.  And,  lastly, 
it  is  the  aim  of  this  policy  to  return  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble the  cost  of  protection  and  administration  of  the 
National  Forests,  and  to  yield  a  revenue  to  the 
States,  since  these  are  entitled  by  statute  to  25  per 
cent,  of  all  gross  receipts  as  an  offset  to  the  loss  of 
local  taxes  through  the  government  ownership  of 
the  forests. 

Annual  Yield  and  Cut.     Each  year  the  amount 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     173 

of  timber  which  can  be  cut  from  each  National 
Forest,  according  to  sound  forestry  principles,  is 
authorized  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture.  This 
cut  is  based  upon  the  best  available  data  as  to  the 
amount  of  mature  and  over-mature  timber  need- 
ing removal,  and  the  amount  of  annual  growth  on 
each  Forest.  At  the  present  time  only  a  small  per- 
centage of  the  authorized  annual  cut  of  the  Forests 
is  taken.  Most  Forests  cut  a  very  small  part  of 
their  annual  allotment,  but  a  few  Forests  cut  their 
full  annual  yield,  or  nearly  so.  On  some  Forests, 
the  entire  annual  yield  is  used  by  local  industries 
and  no  timber  can  be  sent  to  the  general  market; 
on  others  a  very  small  part  of  the  annual  yield  is 
used  by  local  needs  and  most  of  the  cut  can  be  sent 
to  the  general  market.  On  the  Cascade  National 
Forest,  in  Oregon,  for  instance,  the  annual  produc- 
tion is  estimated  at  about  200,000,000  feet,  while  the 
present  local  needs  can  be  supplied  by  approx- 
imately 1,000,000  feet.  From  such  a  Forest  a 
large  annual  cut  can  be  made  for  the  general  mar- 
ket. On  the  Deerlodge  National  Forest,  in  Mon- 
tana, on  the  other  hand,  the  annual  yield  is  esti- 
mated to  be  about  40,000,000  feet,  all  of  which  is 
needed  to  supply  the  large  copper  mines  near  Butte. 


174        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

From  Forests  like  this,  no  sales  for  the  general 
market  can  be  made. 

Although  the  National  Forests  contain  about  six 
hundred  billions  of  board  feet  of  timber,  or  about 
one-fifth  of  the  standing  timber  in  the  United 
States,  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  available  timber 
is  actually  disposed  of.  This  is  due  to  the  com- 
parative inaccessibility  of  this  timber  and  the  pres- 
ence of  large  bodies  of  privately  owned  timber 
which  lie  between  it  and  the  market.  The  result 
of  this  condition  is  that  the  bulk  of  the  salable  tim- 
ber on  the  Forests  will  be  automatically  saved  until 
such  a  time  when  most  of  the  privately  owned  tim- 
ber has  been  cut.  In  this  way,  future  generations 
will  benefit  and  the  public  will  receive  a  much  better 
price  for  it  years  hence  than  they  could  possibly 
obtain  now. 

Timber  Reconnaissance.  Before  any  timber  can 
be  sold  to  advantage,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  take 
an  inventory  of  the  timber  resources.  In  other 
words,  it  is  necessary  to  know  where  the  timber  is, 
how  much  there  is,  and  what  can  be  done  with  it. 
This  timber  estimate,  or  timber  reconnoissance,  as 
it  is  called,  is  also  needed  to  settle  questions  of  title 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     175 

arising  from  the  presence  of  patented  lands  or  valid 
claims;  to  determine  if  cutting  is  advisable  on  a 
given  area,  and,  if  so,  under  what  stipulations ;  and 
to  fix  the  minimum  price  at  which  stumpage  is  to 
be  sold.  The  annual  yield,  or  the  amount  of  timber 
grown  or  produced  annually  upon  an  area,  must  be 
the  ultimate  basis  of  the  annual  cut,  and  this  yield 
can  only  be  computed  after  an  inventory  of  the 
timber  has  been  made. 

Timber  reconnoissance  (valuation  survey  or  val- 
uation strips)  involves  an  estimate  of  the  standing 
timber  by  small  legal  or  natural  subdivisions  of 
land,  with  the  necessary  land  surveys,  the  prep- 
aration of  an  accurate  topographic  and  forest  type 
map,  and  the  compilation  of  detailed  descriptive 
notes.  These  notes  deal  with  the  condition  and 
character  of  the  timber,  the  most  practical  methods 
of  exploitation,  the  extent  and  character  of  the 
young  growth,  and  many  other  factors  which  affect 
the  management  of  timber  lands.  These  data  are 
secured  at  a  cost  of  from  3  to  10  cents  per  acre,  de- 
pending upon  the  accessibility  and  the  topography 
of  the  region  and  the  density  of  the  timber.  This 
work  is  carried  on  both  in  the  summer  and  in  the 


176        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

winter.  Up  to  date,  about  21,000,000  acres  have 
been  covered  by  intensive  reconnoissance  and  about 
48,000,000  acres  by  extensive  methods. 

Logging  the  Timber.  In  order  that  my  reader 
may  better  understand  various  matters  connected 
with  the  disposal  of  National  Forest  timber,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  give  a  brief  outline  of  how  timber 
and  other  forest  products  are  taken  from  the  woods, 
and  the  different  steps  necessary  before  a  green 
tree  in  the  woods  becomes  a  board  or  a  railroad  tie. 

The  methods  of  logging  used  in  the  National 
Forests  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  used  on 
private  lands,  with  the  exception  of  certain  details, 
such  as  the  protection  of  young  growth,  the  cutting 
of  snags,  and  the  disposal  of  the  brush.  The  meth- 
ods used,  of  course,  vary  with  the  locality;  they  are 
different  for  the  Pacific  Coast,  where  donkey  en- 
gines are  used,  than  for  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
where  horses  are  largely  employed.  They  vary 
with  the  climate,  the  topography,  the  size  of  the  tim- 
ber, and  the  kind  of  product  to  be  harvested.  But 
a  typical  logging  operation,  as  carried  on  in  the 
Sierras  of  California,  will  give  an  idea  of  how  logs 
are  taken  from  the  forest. 

In  the  particular  operation  which  I  have  in  niind 


Figure  53.  A  large  storage  reservoir  used  to  irrigate  the  ranches 
3n  the  valley  below.  Elevation  10,500  feet.  Battlement  National 
^Forest,  Colorado.  Photo  by  the  author. 

Figure  54.  A  sheep  herder's  camp  used  temporarily  by  Forest 
Service  timber  cruisers.  Elevation  about  10,000  feet.'  Battlement 
National  Forest,  Colorado.  Photo  by  the  author. 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     177 

the  timber  was  located  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
mountains  between  3,500  and  5,000  feet  in  elevation. 
The  slopes  were  of  medium  steepness  and  much  of 
the  timber  was  on  level  benches.  The  large  saw- 
mill was  located  at  the  lower  edge  of  the  timber  and 
the  logging  camp  was  in  the  woods  near  the  cut- 
ting. The  felling  of  the  trees,  which  were  from 
3  to  6  feet  in  diameter,  was  done  by  two  men  with 
a  two-man  saw.  These  men  are  the  "fallers." 
Two  men  then  cut  the  tree  into  logs  and  still  other 
men  called  "swampers  "  cut  the  brush  and  fallen 
trees  away  so  that  the  newly  cut  timber  can  be 
"skidded"  to  the  railroad.  This  "skidding"  is  done 
by  a  powerful,  steam-driven  stationary  donkey- 
engine,  which  is  fitted  up  with  a  long  cable  and  a 
drum.  After  the  log  is  attached  to  the  cable  out 
in  the  woods  by  means  of  a  "choker,"  the  man  in 
the  woods  gives  the  signal  and  the  engine  starts, 
revolving  the  drum  and  winding  up  the  cable  at 
the  same  time  pulling  the  log  towards  the  engine. 
Just  beside  this  engine  is  a  platform  from  which 
the  logs  are  loaded  directly  on  flat  cars.  When  six 
or  eight  flat  cars  are  loaded  in  this  manner  a  loco- 
motive hauls  them  to  the  sawmill  where  they  are 
sawed  into  boards.  In  this  case  as  soon  as  the 


178       OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

boards  were  cut  they  were  placed  in  a  flume  in 
which  there  was  a  strong  stream  of  water.  In  this 
they  floated  about  40  miles  to  a  town  in  the  valley 
below  directly  into  the  company's  lumber  yard. 

In  the  Rocky  Mountains  one  of  the  main  forest 
products  derived  from  the  National  Forests  is  rail- 
road ties.  On  the  particular  operation  with  which 
the  writer  is  familiar  the  Government  had  sold  to 
a  tie  operator  about  3,000,000  railroad  ties  under 
a  long  term  contract.  This  tie  operator  had  a 
large  contract  with  a  railroad  company.  The  area 
of  the  sale,  several  thousand  acres,  was  divided  or 
surveyed  into  long  strips  each  100  to  150  feet  wide 
and  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  miles  long.  A  large 
camp  and  commissary  was  established  on  the  area. 
There  were  about  100  tie  choppers  and  each  man 
was  assigned  to  a  strip.  On  these  strips  the  trees  to 
be  cut  were  marked  by  a  Forest  officer.  Trees  too 
small  to  make  ties  were  left  as  a  basis  for  a  future 
tie  operation  in  from  forty  to  fifty  years. 

The  tie  choppers  usually  worked  alone.  They 
first  felled  the  tree  with  a  saw,  cut  the  lower  limbs 
off,  and  marked  off  the  ties  on  the  bark  to  see  how 
many  ties  could  be  cut  from  the  tree.  The  tree 
was  then  "scored"  with  an  ax  on  both  sides  in  order 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     179 

to  start  making  the  two  flat  faces  of  the  tie.  These 
sides  were  then  chipped  with  a  "broad  ax,"  thus 
making  two  smooth  faces.  The  bark  was  then 
peeled  from  the  other  two  faces  and  the  tree  was 
then  cut  into  finished  ties.  After  the  ties  were 
made  the  top  of  the  tree  was  lopped,  that  is,  the 
branches  were  cut  from  the  trunk.  In  this  opera- 
tion these  branches  were  scattered  evenly  over  the 
ground.  The  tie  chopper  then  cleared  a  road 
through  the  middle  of  his  strip  and  "parked"  his 
ties  on  the  road.  He  then  stamped  his  private 
mark  on  each  tie.  In  the  winter  the  ties  were 
"hauled"  on  large  sleds  to  the  river  bank.  Each 
tie  chopper's  ties  were  put  in  a  separate  pile  so 
that  the  company's  sealer  could  count  them  and 
credit  them  to  the  man  that  made  them.  In  the 
spring,  when  the  river's  banks  were  full,  the  ties 
were  "driven"  down  the  river  to  the  shipping  point, 
usually  a  town  on  a  railroad  line. 

A  Forest  officer  is  detailed  to  an  operation  of  this 
kind  to  inspect  the  choppers'  work  and  count  and 
stamp  the  ties.  He  sees  to  it  that  all  trees  that 
have  been  marked  for  cutting  are  cut,  that  no  trees 
not  marked  have  been  cut,  that  young  growth  is 
not  unnecessarily  injured,  that  the  stumps  are  not 


180        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

left  too  high,  that  the  tops  are  fully  utilized,  that 
the  slashing  or  brush  is  disposed  of  according  to 
the  contract,  and  that  the  operator  is  keeping  all 
his  agreements  in  the  contract. 

The  First  Step  in  Purchasing  Government  Tim- 
ber. After  the  desired  body  of  timber  has  been 
located,  the  first  step  for  any  one  desiring  to  pur- 
chase government  timber  is  to  communicate  with 
an  officer  of  the  National  Forest  in  which  the  tim- 
ber is  located.  If  only  a  small  amount  is  desired — 
less  than  $50  in  value — the  local  Ranger  can  ar- 
range to  make  the  sale  without  delay.  Amounts 
valued  at  more  than  this  can  be  sold  only  by  the 
higher  officials  of  the  Service,  that  is  the  Super- 
visor, District  Forester,  or  the  Forester,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  sale.  The  Supervisor  can  sell  up 
to  two  million  feet;  larger  sales  are  made  by  the 
District  Forester  or  the  Forester.  All  sales  ex- 
ceeding $100  in  amount  must  be  advertised,  except 
those  made  to  homestead  settlers  and  farmers  in  a 
private  sale.  Sales  are  advertised  in  order  to  se- 
cure the  largest  number  of  bidders  possible  and  thus 
prevent  the  monopoly  of  large  bodies  of  timber  by 
large  timber  operators. 

Procedure  in  an  Advertised  Sale.     After  the  ap- 


Figure  55.  View  taken  in  the  Coast  Range  mountains  of  Cali- 
fornia where  Sugar  pine  and  Douglas  fir  are  the  principal  trees. 
Klamath  National  Forest,  California.  Photo  by  the  author. 

Figure  56.  A  typical  mountain  scene  in  the  California  Coast 
Range.  On  these  steep  slopes  a  forest  cover  is  of  vital  importance. 
Klamath  National  Forest,  California.  Photo  by  the  autnor. 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     181 

plicant  has  selected  the  body  of  timber  he  wishes  to 
purchase,  he  is  furnished  by  the  Supervisor  with  a 
sample  application  stating  the  area,  estimated 
amount,  minimum  stumpage  price,  period  allowed 
for  cutting  and  removing  the  timber,  and  other  con- 
ditions to  be  complied  with,  following  as  closely  as 
possible  the  form  of  the  final  sale  agreement. 
Usually,  also,  the  purchaser  is  interested  in  the 
amount  of  timber  which  he  may  cut  per  acre.  For 
this  reason  he  visits  sample  areas  on  which  the  trees 
have  been  marked  for  cutting.  A  notice  of  the  sale 
of  the  timber  is  then  published,  the  choice  of  medi- 
ums and  number  of  insertions  depending  upon 
whether  the  sale  is  of  local,  regional,  or  general  in- 
terest. This  notice  describes  the  timber,  gives  the 
minimum  stumpage  prices  that  will  be  accepted, 
and  specifies  the  date  upon  which  sealed  bids  will 
be  received.  The  period  of  advertising  is  at  least 
30  days,  and  in  large  sales  from  3  to  6  months. 
Forms  for  bidding  are  furnished  to  the  original  ap- 
plicant and  others  who  signify  their  intention  to 
bid.  A  deposit  is  required  with  all  bids  to  show 
the  good  faith  of  the  bidder.  In  large  transactions 
this  deposit  is  usually  from  3  to  5  per  cent,  of  the 
purchase  price.  On  the  date  specified  in  the  adver- 


182        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

tisement  the  Supervisor  (or  District  Forester) 
opens  all  bids  received  and  awards  the  sale  to  the 
highest  bidder.  The  sale  contract  is  then  prepared 
and  executed  by  the  purchaser. 

A  specific  statement  of  financial  ability  is  re- 
quired in  all  sales  of  ten  million  feet  or  more,  and 
in  smaller  sales  in  the  discretion  of  the  approving 
officer.  Such  a  statement  may  be  required  before 
the  approval  of  the  sale  application,  either  formal 
or  tentative,  and  in  any  event  before  the  timber  is 
awarded  to  the  successful  bidder.  The  contract 
must  be  supported  by  a  suitable  bond  given  by  two 
responsible  sureties  or  by  a  surety  company  au- 
thorized to  do  business  with  the  United  States. 

Timber  Sale  Contract  Clauses.  The  sale  con- 
tract contains  in  full  all  the  conditions  under  which 
the  cutting  is  to  be  done.  In  all  sales  of  National 
Forest  stumpage  the  contract  provides  that  no  tim- 
ber shall  be  cut  until  it  has  been  paid  for,  and  that 
it  shall  not  be  removed  until  it  has  been  scaled  by  a 
Forest  officer.  All  live  timber  is  marked  or  other- 
wise designated  before  cutting,  and  any  merchant- 
able timber  used  for  logging  improvements,  such 
as  houses,  bridges,  stables,  etc.,  must  be  scaled  and 
paid  for.  In  order  to  secure  full  utilization  of  the 


Figure  57.  A  forest  officer  at  work  on  a  high  mountain  peak  mak- 
ing a  plane-table  survey  and  timber  estimate  of  National  Forest 
lands.  Photo  by  the  author. 

Figure  58.  A  government  timber  cruiser's  summer  camp.  These 
cruisers  get  a  fairly  accurate  estimate  of  Uncle  Sam's  timber  re- 
sources at  a  cost  of  'from  2  to  5  cents  an  acre.  Photo  bv  the  author. 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     183 

timber  the  maximum  stump  height  is  ordinarily 
fixed  at  18  inches,  and  merchantable  timber  must  be 
used  to  a  specified  diameter  in  the  tops,  which  is  ad- 
justed for  each  species  in  accordance  with  local 
manufacturing  and  market  conditions.  The  officer 
in  charge  of  the  sale  is  authorized  to  vary  the  stump 
height  and  top  diameter  in  individual  cases  when 
those  specified  in  the  contract  are  not  practicable. 
The  tops  must  be  trimmed  up  and,  as  a  rule,  brush 
must  be  piled  and  burned,  or  burned  without  piling 
under  the  direction  of  Forest  officers.  Merchant- 
able timber  which  is  not  cut  and  removed  and 
unmarked  trees  which  are  cut  must  be  paid  for  at 
double  the  specified  stumpage  rates.  This  extra 
charge  serves  as  a  penalty. 

All  camps^,  buildings,  railroads,  and  other  im- 
provements necessary  in  logging  and  manufactur- 
ing the  timber  may  be  constructed  upon  National 
Forest  land  without  charge.  Railroads  which  open 
up  inaccessible  regions  may  be  required  to  be  made 
common  carriers  or  to  transport  logs  and  lumber 
for  other  purchasers  or  for  the  Government  at 
reasonable  rates. 

Since  fire  protection  is  one  of  the  most  important 
duties  of  the  Forest  Service,  provision  is  made  in 


184        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

all  contracts  that  the  purchaser  must  place  himself 
and  employees,  as  well  as  the  employees  of  his  con- 
tractors, at  the  disposal  of  authorized  Forest  offi- 
cers for  fighting  fires.  Reimbursement  is  made  for 
such  services  at  the  wages  in  vogue  for  fighting 
fires  on  the  National  Forest  in  question,  unless  the 
fire  threatens  the  timber  of  the  purchaser  or  prop- 
erty of  the  operator,  or  is  started  in  connection  with 
the  operation.  Under  these  conditions  the  pur- 
chaser is  expected  to  furnish  his  available  em- 
ployees to  assist  the  Government  in  fire  fighting 
without  charge.  Efficient  spark  arresters  are  re- 
quired on  wood  and  coal  burning  boilers  or  locomo- 
tives. Inflammable  material  must  be  cleaned  up 
in  the  vicinity  of  logging  engines,  and  other  precau- 
tions taken  to  insure  against  fire  spreading  from 
this  source.  Snags  and  diseased  trees  upon  the  sale 
area  must  usually  be  felled,  whether  merchantable 
or  not,  in  order  to  remove  fire  menace  and  to  check 
the  spread  of  timber  infestations  and  pests. 

Special  Contract  Clauses.  Special  clauses  are 
inserted  in  contracts  to  meet  peculiar  and  unusual 
conditions.  These  deal  with  the  number  of  men 
the  company  is  to  furnish  for  brush  burning;  the 
time  of  the  year  this  work  is  to  be  done;  the  con- 


Figure  59.  Forest  officers  moving  camp  while  engaged  in  winter 
reconnaissance  work.  All  food,  beds,  and  clothing  are  packed  on 
"Alaska"  sleds  and  drawn  by  the  men  themselves.  Photo  by  the 
author. 

Figure  60.  A  winter  reconnaissance  camp  showing  snow-shoes, 
skis,  "Alaska"  sleds,  and  bull  hide  used  to  repair  the  webbing  on 
the  snow-shoes.  Lassen  National  Forest,  California.  Photo  by  the 
author. 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     185 

struction  of  fire  lines ;  the  manner  of  scaling  timber ; 
the  manner  of  piling  and  the  location  of  piles  of 
material  to  be  scaled;  the  definition  of  a  merchant- 
able log;  the  utilization  of  tops;  the  manner  or 
method  of  logging  to  be  used;  the  location  of  im- 
provements ;  the  use  of  timber  for  the  construction 
of  improvements;  the  disposal  of  improvements  at 
the  termination  of  the  contract ;  where  cutting  is  to 
begin  and  how  fast  it  is  to  proceed ;  the  percentage 
of  merchantable  timber  to  be  reserved  in  marking; 
and  other  special  clauses  recommended  by  the  Bu- 
reau of  Entomology  for  the  sale  of  insect  infested 
timber. 

That  the  Forest  Service  timber  sale  policy  and 
the  various  timber  sale  clauses  have  met  with  the 
approval  of  the  lumbermen  and  the  timber  buyers 
of  the  Western  States  is  attested  by  the  fact  that  in 
the  last  ten  years  (from  July  1,  1907,  to  June  30, 
1917)  there  have  been  nearly  75,000  purchasers  of 
National  Forest  timber  and  that  between  these  two 
dates  the  annual  number  of  timber  sales  has  in- 
creased from  5,062  in  the  fiscal  year  1908  to  11,608 
in  the  fiscal  year  1917.  No  better  evidence  could 
be  cited  of  the  confidence  which  the  lumbermen  have 
in  the  Forest  Service  method  of  doing  business. 


186        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

When  the  Operation  May  Begin.  As  soon  as 
the  contract  has  been  executed  and  the  first  pay- 
ment has  been  made  a  portion  of  the  timber  is 
marked  for  cutting  and  the  purchaser  may  begin 
operations  at  once.  Sometimes  cutting  in  advance 
of  the  execution  of  the  contract  is  allowed  to  pre- 
vent serious  hardship  and  unnecessary  delay  and 
expense  on  the  part  of  the  purchaser. 

Marking  the  Timber  for  Cutting.  In  order  to 
insure  a  proper  restocking  of  the  ground,  all  live 
trees  must  be  marked  or  otherwise  designated  by  a 
Forest  officer  before  cutting  can  commence.  Usu- 
ally from  1/10  to  1/3  of  the  stand  is  reserved,  either 
scattered  over  the  entire  tract  or  distributed  in 
groups.  These  trees  are  left  for  various  reasons, 
depending  upon  circumstances.  The  most  impor- 
tant consideration  is,  of  course,  to  leave  enough 
seed  trees  to  restock  the  cut-over  area.  On  steep 
slopes  a  certain  number  of  trees  must  be  left  to 
protect  the  watershed  and  to  prevent  the  erosion  of 
the  soil.  Many  species  of  trees  are  subject  to 
windthrow  when  the  stand  is  thinned  out.  To 
counteract  this  tendency  a  sufficient  number  of 
trees  must  be  left  to  prevent  the  wind  from  getting 
an  unobstructed  sweep.  In  many  semi-arid  por- 


Figure  61.     A  group  of  giant  redwoods.     Santa  Cruz  County, 
California 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     187 

tions  of  the  West  additional  trees  must  be  left  stand- 
ing to  protect  the  forest  from  excessive  drying  and 
to  prevent  the  ground  from  being  occupied  by  use- 
less tree  weeds  and  brush.  Often,  especially  along 
highways,  trees  are  left  for  their  scenic  effect. 
From  an  economic  standpoint  it  is  important  some- 
times to  leave  trees  in  order  to  make  a  second  cut 
worth  while. 

Where  only  dead  timber  is  purchased,  and  no 
living  trees  are  cut,  or  where  patches  of  forest  are  to 
be  cut  clean,  Forest  officers,  instead  of  marking 
every  tree  to  be  removed,  blaze  and  mark  a  bound- 
ary of  the  cutting  area  or  patch  and  instruct  the 
purchaser  accordingly.  Where  individual  trees  are 
marked  they  are  blazed  and  stamped  "U.  S."  next 
to  the  ground  on  the  lowest  side  of  the  stump. 
Additional  blazes  may  be  made  several  feet  above 
the  ground  whenever  desired  by  the  purchaser  for 
the  convenience  of  his  "fallers"  or  where  deep  snow 
may  conceal  the  lower  mark  from  the  "fallers." 
Where  both  kinds  of  blazes  are  used,  one  man,  in 
fairly  dense  pine  timber,  can  mark  from  500  to 
1,000  trees  in  a  day.  Under  no  condition  may  un- 
marked or  undesignated  trees  be  cut  by  the  pur- 
chaser. 


188       OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

The  system  of  marking  and  the  proportion  of  the 
timber  to  be  cut  is  explained  to  purchasers  by  mark- 
ing sample  areas  before  the  contract  is  executed. 
The  cost  of  logging  under  the  methods  of  marking 
adopted  is  compensated  fully  in  the  stumpage  ap- 
praisal. 

Scaling,  Measuring,  and  Stamping.  Unless 
timber  is  sold  by  estimate,  it  must  be  scaled, 
counted,  or  measured  before  it  is  removed  from  the 
cutting  area  or  place  agreed  upon  for  this  purpose. 
In  addition  it  must  be  stamped  by  a  Forest  officer 
with  a  regulation  marking  ax  or  similar  instru- 
ment. Payment  is  made  upon  the  actual  scale, 
count  or  measure,  with  due  allowance  for  defect. 

All  National  Forest  timber  is  sold  under  specifi- 
cations which  are  in  accordance  with  those  in  com- 
mercial use,  such  as  logs  by  the  thousand  board  feet, 
ties  by  the  piece,  poles  by  length  and  top  diameter, 
shingle  bolts  by  the  cord,  and  mining  timbers  by 
the  linear  foot.  All  logs  are  scaled  at  the  small 
end. 

All  saw  timber  is  scaled  by  the  Scribner  Decimal 
C  log  rule.  In  order  to  permit  scaling  at  reason- 
able cost  to  the  Forest  Service,  purchasers  may  be 
required,  where  the  cost  of  logging  may  not  be 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     189 

unduly  increased,  to  skid  and  pile  the  logs  for 
scaling.  Piles  and  skidways  must  be  constructed 
so  as  to  permit  economical  scaling  and  when  neces- 
sary and  practicable  the  purchaser  is  required  to 
mark  the  small  ends  of  the  logs  to  avoid  misunder- 
standing when  they  are  scaled  on  the  pile. 

Logs  or  other  material  that  has  been  scaled  or 
measured  are  designated  by  a  "US"  stamp  im- 
pressed in  the  wood  so  that  the  material  may  not 
be  scaled  again  by  mistake.  Each  merchantable 
log  scaled  is  stamped  on  at  least  one  end  and  un- 
merchantable or  defective  logs  are  stamped  "US" 
in  a  circle.  Material  other  than  saw  logs,  such  as 
mine  timber,  ties,  posts,  poles,  or  piling,  after  scal- 
ing, is  stamped  on  at  least  one  end.  Cord  wood  is 
stamped  at  both  the  top  and  bottom  of  each  rick. 

On  all  National  Forests  except  those  in  Alaska 
and  west  of  the  summit  of  the  Cascades  in  Wash- 
ington and  Oregon,  logs  over  16  feet  are  scaled  as 
two  or  more  logs  as  far  as  practicable  in  lengths  of 
not  less  than  12  feet.  In  Alaska  and  parts  of  Ore- 
gon and  Washington  logs  up  to  and  including  32 
feet  in  length  are  scaled  as  one  log;  logs  from 
32  to  64  feet  inclusive  are  scaled  as  two  logs  as 
nearly  equal  in  length  as  possible  in  even  feet.  All 


190        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

diameters  are  measured  inside  the  bark  at  the  top 
end  of  the  log  and  diameters  are  rounded  off  to  the 
nearest  inch  above  or  below  the  actual  diameter. 

In  the  case  of  logs  each  one  is  numbered  and  the 
number  entered  in  a  scale  book  with  the  correspond- 
ing board  foot  scale  of  the  log.  In  the  case  of  ties, 
posts,  poles,  mining  timbers,  etc.,  each  pile  or  skid- 
way  is  numbered  and  the  count  or  scale  entered 
opposite  the  corresponding  number  in  the  scale 
book. 

Disposal  of  Slash.  One  of  the  most  important 
features  in  National  Forest  timber  sales  is  the  dis- 
posal of  the  brush  or  slash  after  logging.  On  ac- 
count of  the  great  diversity  of  conditions  which 
obtain  on  the  Forests,  the  best  way  to  dispose  of 
brush  is  not  everywhere  the  same.  Piling  and 
burning  is  required  where  the  fire  risk  is  great; 
otherwise  the  method  promising  the  best  silvicul- 
tural  results  is  used. 

When  piling  and  burning  is  necessary,  all  tops 
and  debris,  including  large  chips  made  from  hewing 
ties,  are  piled  at  a  safe  distance  from  standing  trees. 
The  piles  are  not  allowed  to  be  made  in  groups  of 
seedlings  or  young  growth,  against  dead  snags,  near 
living  trees,  or  on  stumps,  large  tops  or  logs,  but 


Figure  64.  Logging  in  California.  Powerful  steam  engines  pull 
the  logs  from  the  woods  to  the  railroad  and  load  them  on  flat  cars. 
Photo  by  the  author. 

Figure  65.  The  loaded  flat  cars  reach  the  saw-mill  where  the  logs 
are  unloaded  and  sawn  into  lumber.  During  the  fiscal  year  1917 
timber  sales  on  the  National  Forests  brought  into  the  National  Treas- 
ury almost  $1,700,000.00.  Photo  by  the  author. 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     191 

wherever  possible  in  openings.  The  piles  are 
adapted  to  the  size  of  the  opening  in  which  they  are 
made  and  must  be  made  sufficiently  compact  to 
kindle  easily  and  burn  cleanly.  The  ideal  pile  is  of 
medium  size,  conical  in  shape,  compact,  from  5  to  7 
feet  in  diameter  at  the  base  and  from  4  to  5  feet 
high.  Brush  piling  and  burning  is  an  art  which 
can  only  be  acquired  after  long  experience. 

Brush  is  scattered  whenever  this  method  prom- 
ises the  best  silvicultural  results,  unless  there  is 
serious  danger  from  fire  on  account  of  dense  timber 
and  reproduction.  The  scattered  brush  is  intended 
to  afford  protection  to  seedlings  from  excessive 
transpiration  and  from  trampling  by  stock  and  to 
protect  the  soil  from  erosion. 

Ground  burning  may  be  advisable  where  clean 
cutting  has  been  employed,  to  expose  the  loose  min- 
eral soil  for  better  seed  germination.  When  this 
method  is  used  the  purchaser  is  required  to  clear  a 
fire  line  around  the  area  to  be  burned  and  to  furnish 
adequate  help  to  the  Forest  officer  who  supervises 
the  burning. 

Frequently  brush  is  burned  as  the  cutting  pro- 
gresses. Fires  are  started  at  convenient  points  and 
the  brush  is  thrown  on  them  as  it  is  lopped. 


192        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

Where  brush  burning  is  necessary  it  is  not  ad- 
visable, ordinarily,  to  burn  over  an  entire  sale  area. 
It  is  frequently  possible  to  burn  the  brush  so  as  to 
form  broad  fire  lines,  particularly  along  railroads 
or  wagon  roads.  The  best  times  for  brush  burning 
are  after  a  light  fall  of  snow  or  rain,  early  in  the 
spring  before  the  snow  has  melted  or  the  dry  season 
has  begun  or  during  or  immediately  after  summer 
rains.  Brush  disposal  must  always  keep  pace  with 
logging  except  when  the  depth  of  snow  or  other 
reasons  make  proper  disposal  impossible.  Often 
the  brush  must  lay  in  piles  at  least  one  season  before 
it  becomes  dry  enough  to  burn. 

Payment  for  Timber.  Payment  must  be  made 
for  all  timber  in  advance  of  cutting.  This,  how- 
ever, does  not  imply  that  one  advance  payment 
must  be  made  to  cover  the  stumpage  value  of  all  the 
timber  included  in  the  sale.  Frequent  installments 
are  allowed  sufficient  usually  to  cover  the  cut  of  one 
or  two  months. 

This  arrangement  makes  it  possible  to  secure 
large  tracts  of  National  Forest  timber  at  a  very 
slight  initial  outlay  and  to  hold  them  with  almost 
no  interest  charges.  The  other  usual  carrying 
charges,  namely,  taxes  and  fire  protection,  are  elim- 


Figure  66.     Scene  in  Montana.     Forest  officers  constructing 
phone  line  through  the  Flathead  National  Forest. 

Figure  67.  Forest  Ranger,  accompanied  by  a  lumberman,  marking 
National  Forest  timber  for  cutting  in  a  timber  sale.  Coconino  Na- 
tional Forest,  Arizona. 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     193 

inated.  The  timber  is  protected  from  fire  by  the 
United  States  throughout  the  life  of  the  contract. 
The  money  deposited  to  secure  cutting  in  advance 
of  the  execution  of  the  contract  may  be  credited 
towards  the  amount  to  accompany  the  bid. 

Stumpage  Rates.  The  minimum  stumpage  rates 
applicable  in  each  proposed  sale  are  determined  by 
a  careful  study  of  the  conditions  in  the  particular 
case.  Stumpage  rates  are  the  actual  market  value 
of  the  timber.  They  are  based  upon  the  quality  of 
the  timber  and  the  character  of  its  commercial  prod- 
ucts ;  the  estimated  cost  of  logging,  transportation, 
and  manufacture;  the  investment  required  on  the 
part  of  the  operator ;  the  selling  value  of  the  prod- 
uct; and  a  fair  profit  to  the  purchaser.  The  esti- 
mated profit  depends  upon  the  size  and  the  per- 
manency of  the  operation  and  the  degree  of  risk 
involved.  The  cost  of  brush  disposal,  protection  of 
young  growth,  logging  only  marked  timber  and 
other  requirements  of  the  Forest  Service  is  fully 
considered  in  appraising  stumpage  rates. 

Timber  is  ordinarily  appraised  at  the  rates  indi- 
cated for  the  most  valuable  products  to  which  it  is 
suited  and  for  which  an  established  market  exists. 
Merchantable  dead  timber  is  appraised  at  the  same 


194        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

rate  as  green  timber  of  the  same  species  unless  it  is 
clearly  shown  that  the  products  manufactured  from 
it  command  a  lower  market  price  or  that  logging 
costs  are  higher. 

Cutting  Period.  Ordinarily  the  cutting  period 
allowed  in  each  sale  is  only  sufficient  to  permit  the 
removal  of  the  timber  at  a  reasonable  rate,  approxi- 
mately equivalent  to  the  working  capacity  of  the 
plant.  Sales  of  accessible  timber  usually  do  not 
exceed  5  years  in  length.  However,  in  the  case  of 
inaccessible  tracts  requiring  a  large  investment  for 
transportation  facilities  an  exception  is  made  and 
periods  of  from  15  to  20  years  may  be  granted. 

Readjustment  of  Stumpage  Hates.  In  all  sales 
exceeding  5  years  in  length  provision  is  made  to 
have  the  stumpage  rates  readjusted  by  the  For- 
ester at  the  end  of  three  or  five  year  intervals  to 
meet  changing  market  and  manufacturing  condi- 
tions. 

Refunds.  Deposits  to  cover  or  secure  advance 
cutting  or  to  accompany  bids  apply  on  the  first  pay- 
ment if  a  sale  is  awarded  to  the  depositor;  other- 
wise they  will  be  refunded.  Refunds  are  also  made 
to  the  purchaser  if  the  last  payment  is  in  excess  of 
the  value  of  the  timber  that  is  cut. 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     195 

THE  DISPOSAL   OF  TIMBER  TO   HOMESTEAD   SETTLERS 
AND  UNDER  FREE  USE 

Besides  selling  the  timber  and  other  forest  prod- 
ucts outright,  as  has  just  been  described,  some  tim- 
ber is  sold  to  settlers  at  cost  and  much  timber  is 
given  away  to  the  local  people  under  the  free  use 
policy. 

Sales  to  Homestead  Settlers  and  Farmers. 
Sales  to  homestead  settlers  and  farmers  are  made 
without  advertisement  in  any  amount  desired,  at 
the  price  fixed  annually  for  each  National  Forest 
region  of  similar  conditions  by  the  Secretary,  as 
equivalent  to  the  actual  cost  of  making  and  admin- 
istering such  sales.  Only  material  to  be  used  by 
the  purchaser  for  domestic  purposes  exclusively  on 
homesteads  or  farms  is  sold  in  this  way.  Such  uses 
include  the  construction  or  repair  of  farm  buildings, 
fences,  and  other  improvements  and  fuel.  Such 
sales  are  restricted  to  mature  dead  and  down  timber 
which  may  be  cut  without  injury  to  the  forest. 

Free  Use.  Free  use  of  timber  is  granted  pri- 
marily to  aid  in  the  protection  and  silvicultural  im- 
provement of  the  Forests.  Hence  the  material 
taken  is,  except  in  unusual  cases,  restricted  to  dead, 


196        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

insect  infested  and  diseased  timber,  and  thinnings. 
Green  material  may  be  taken  in  exceptional  cases 
where  its  refusal  would  clearly  cause  unwarranted 
hardship.  The  use  of  such  material  is  granted 
freely:  (1)  To  bona  fide  settlers,  miners,  resi- 
dents, prospectors,  for  fire  wood,  fencing,  building, 
mining,  prospecting,  and  other  domestic  purposes; 
and  to  any  one  in  case  its  removal  is  necessary  for 
the  welfare  of  the  Forest;  (2)  for  the  construction 
of  telephone  lines  when  necessary  for  the  protec- 
tion of  forests  from  fire;  (3)  to  certain  branches 
of  the  Federal  Government.  Free  use  is  not 
granted  for  commercial  purposes  or  of  use  in  any 
business,  including  sawmills,  hotels,  stores,  compa- 
nies or  corporations.  Such  persons  are  required  to 
purchase  their  timber. 

The  aggregate  amount  of  free  use  material 
granted  annually  to  any  user  must  not  exceed  $20 
in  value,  except  in  cases  of  unusual  need  or  of  dead 
or  insect  infested  timber,  the  removal  of  which 
would  be  a  benefit  to  the  forest,  or  in  the  case  of 
any  timber  which  should  be  removed  and  whose  sale 
under  contract  cannot  be  effected.  In  these  cases 
the  amount  may  be  extended  to  $100.  Supervisors 
have  authority  to  grant  free  use  permits  up  to 


Figure  69.  View  showing  the  Forest  Service  method  of  piling  the 
brush  and  debris  after  logging,  and  also  how  stump  heights  are  kept 
down  to  prevent  waste.  New  Mexico. 

Figure  70.  A  tie-cutting  operation  on  a  National  Forest.  These 
piles  of  railroad  ties  are  being  inspected,  stamped,  and  counted  by 
Forest  rangers.  From  this  point  the  ties  are  "skidded"  to  the  banks 
of  a  stream  to  be  floated  to  the  shipping  point.  Near  Evanston, 
Wyoming. 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     197 


),  District  Foresters  up  to  $500,  and  larger 
amounts  must  have  the  approval  of  the  Forester. 

Free  use  material  is  appraised  in  the  same  man- 
ner and  in  accordance  with  the  same  principles  as 
timber  purchased  under  sale  agreements.  The 
valuation  of  such  material  is  at  the  same  rate  as 
that  prevailing  for  similar  grades  of  stumpage  in 
current  sales  in  the  same  locality. 

The  magnitude  of  the  free  use  business  may  be 
appreciated  from  the  fact  that  during  the  fiscal 
year  1917  there  were  41,427  individuals  or  compa- 
nies who  received  timber  under  this  policy.  The 
total  amount  thus  given  away  was  113,073,000 
board  feet  valued  at  over  $150,000. 

Permits  for  this  use  are  required  for  green  ma- 
terial, but  dead  timber  may  be  taken  without  a  per- 
mit. Supervisors  designate  as  free-use  areas  cer- 
tain portions  or  all  of  any  National  Forest  and 
settlers,  miners,  residents,  and  prospectors  may  cut 
and  remove  from  such  areas  free  of  charge  under 
Forest  Service  regulations  any  timber  needed  for 
their  own  use  for  firewood,  fencing,  buildings,  min- 
ing, prospecting,  or  other  domestic  purposes. 

Material  cut  under  free-use  regulations  must  not 
be  removed  from  the  cutting  area  until  scaled  or 


198        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

measured  by  a  Forest  officer.  In  some  cases  this 
requirement  is  waived  when  by  it  the  needs  of  the 
users  are  met  with  greater  dispatch  and  the  cost  of 
administration  is  thereby  reduced.  The  free-use 
applicant  is  required  to  utilize  the  trees  cut  in  ac- 
cordance with  local  Forest  Service  practice  and  he 
is  required  to  avoid  unnecessary  damage  to  young 
growth  and  standing  timber. 

TIMBER    SETTLEMENT    AND    ADMINISTRATIVE    USE 

When  timber  on  National  Forest  land  is  cut, 
damaged,  killed,  or  destroyed  in  connection  with 
the  enjoyment  of  a  right-of-way  or  other  special 
use,  it  is  not  necessary  to  advertise  it  for  sale,  but 
payment  therefor  is  required  at  not  less  than  the 
minimum  rate  established  by  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture. Timber  removed  in  this  way  is  usually 
scaled,  measured,  or  counted  and  the  procedure  is 
identical  with  that  of  a  timber  sale.  But  where 
timber  is  destroyed  or  where  it  is  not  worked  up  in 
measurable  form  or  where  the  cutting  is  done  in 
such  a  way  that  scaling  is  impracticable,  settlement 
is  required  on  the  basis  of  an  estimate. 

In  1912  a  new  branch  of  the  Southern  Pacific 
Railroad  was  built  across  a  portion  of  the  Lassen 


• 


Figure  71.  Brush  piles  on  a  cut-over  area  before  burning.  Forest 
Service  methods  aim  to  clean  up  the  forest  after  logging  so  that 
forest  fires  have  less  inflammable  material  to  feed  on.  Bitterroot 
National  Forest,  Montana. 

Figure  75.  At  a  time  of  the  year  when  there  is  least  danger  from 
fire  the  brush  piles  are  burned.  "  Missoula  National  Forest,  Montana. 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     199 

National  Forest  in  California.  The  company  was 
going  to  use  some  of  the  timber,  but  most  of  it  was 
to  be  destroyed  or  disposed  of  in  the  easiest  manner. 
Scaling  was  impossible,  so  the  company, paid  for 
the  timber — about  $10,000 — on  the  basis  of  a  care- 
ful estimate  made  by  the  writer,  then  Forest 
Examiner. 

The  charge  for  all  such  timber  is  made  on  the 
basis  of  the  current  stumpage  rates  for  timber  of 
like  quality  and  accessibility  included  in  sales  for 
all  classes  of  material  which  have  to  be  cut  or  de- 
stroyed and  which  are  commonly  salable  on  the 
Forest. 

Timber  is  often  used  by  the  Forest  Service  itself 
in  the  administration  of  the  National  Forests. 
The  Forester,  District  Foresters,  and  the  Super- 
visors are  authorized  to  sell  or  dispose  of  under 
free  use  or  otherwise,  within  the  amount  each  one 
is  authorized  to  sell,  any  timber  upon  the  National 
Forests  when  such  removal  is  actually  necessary  to 
protect  the  Forest  from  ravages  or  destruction,  or 
when  the  use  or  removal  of  the  timber  is  necessary 
in  the  construction  of  roads,  trails,  cabins,  and 
other  improvements  on  the  National  Forests  or  in 
experiments  conducted  by  the  Forest  Service. 


200        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

THE  RENTAL  OF  NATIONAL  FOREST  RANGE  LANDS 

The. forage  crop  on  the  National  Forests  is  for 
the  use  of  the  sheep  and  cattle  of  the  western  stock- 
men and  it  is  procured  by  means  of  grazing  per- 
mits which  are  issued  and  charged  for  upon  a  per 
capita  basis.  The  primary  objects  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  government  grazing  lands  are:  the  pro- 
tection and  conservative  use  of  all  National  Forest 
land  adapted  to  grazing;  the  permanent  good  of 
the  live  stock  industry  through  the  proper  care  and 
use  of  grazing  lands ;  and  the  protection  of  the  set- 
tler and  home  builder  against  unfair  competition 
in  the  use  of  the  range. 

Importance  of  the  Live  Stock  Industry.  The 
grazing  business,  more  than  any  other  feature  of 
National  Forest  management,  is  immensely  prac- 
tical, because  it  is  immediately  concerned  with  hu- 
man interests.  This  industry  furnishes  not  only 
meat,  but  leather,  wool,  and  many  by-products. 

That  the  National  Forests  play  a  big  part  in  the 
maintenance  of  this  industry  there  can  be  little 
doubt;  for  it  has  been  estimated  recently  that  30 
per  cent,  of  the  sheep  and  20  per  cent,  of  the  cattle 
of  the  far  Western  States  are  grazed  in  the  Na- 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     201 

tional  Forests.  The  Forests  contain  by  far  the 
largest  part  of  the  summer  range  lands  in  the  far 
Western  States  and  hence  are  of  paramount  im- 
portance. The  winter_grazing  lands  in  the  West  < 
are  so  much  greater  in  area  than  the  summer  lands, 
that  for  this  reason  also  National  Forest  range 
lands  are  in  great  demand. 

Permits  Issued  in  1917.  During  the  fiscal  year 
1917  more  than  31,000  permits  to  graze  cattle,  hogs, 
or  horses,  and  over  5,500  permits  to  graze  sheep 
or  goats  were  issued.  These  permits  provided  for 
2,054,384  cattle,  7,586,034  sheep,  about  100,000 
horses,  about  50,000  goats,  and  about  3,000  hogs. 
The  total  receipts  for  1917  were  over  $1,500,000. 
The  gross  receipts  to  the  owners  of  the  stock 
probably  exceeded  $50,000,000  and  the  capital  in- 
vested in  the  stock  no  doubt  amounted  to  over 
$200,000,000. 

An  idea  of  the  growth  of  the  grazing  business 
may  be  gotten  from  the  Forest  Service  statistics  for 
the  fiscal  yea'*s  1908  and  1917.  The  increase  in 
the  number  of  permits  and  the  volume  of  the  busi- 
ness is  due  primarily  to  a  better  administration  and 
better  regulation  of  grazing  interests  and  more 
specifically  to  the  increase  in  the  carrying  capacity 


202        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

of  government  lands  by  wise  and  restricted  use. 
Between  these  two  fiscal  years  there  was  no  appre- 
ciable increase  in  the  total  area  of  the  Forests 
which  would  account  for  the  increased  business. 
In  1908  there  were  issued  19,845  permits  for  1,382,- 
221  cattle,  horses  and  hogs;  in  1917  there  were  is- 
sued 31,136  permits  for  2,054,384  animals.  In 
1908  there  were  issued  4,282  permits  for  7,087,111 
sheep  and  goats;  in  1917  5,502  permits  were  issued 
for  7,586,034  sheep  and  goats.  The  number  of 
cattle  and  horses  grazed  has  increased  therefore  by 
50  per  cent,  and  the  number  of  sheep  and  goats 
by  7  per  cent.  The  total  receipts  have  increased 
from  $962,829.40  in  1908  to  $1,549,794.76  in  1917. 
Kinds  of  Range,  Grazing  Seasons,  and  Methods 
of  Handling  Stock.  For  the  proper  understand- 
ing of  the  grazing  business  on  the  National  Forests 
it  is  necessary  to  know  something  about  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  range,  the  length  of  grazing  seasons, 
and  the  methods  of  handling  different  classes  of 
stock.  Sheep  and  goat  range  differs  materially 
from  cattle  and  horse  range  and  the  proper  dis- 
tribution of  stock  over  a  National  Forest  cannot  be 
effected  unless  this  difference  is  recognized.  Sheep 
and  goat  range  usually  consists  of  low  shrubs  or 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     203 

brush  and  is  known  collectively  as  "browse";  cattle 
and  horses  subsist  mainly  upon  grass,  flowering 
plants  and  herbs.  Sheep  feel  more  at  home  on 
high  mountain  slopes,  while  cattle  and  horses  range 
usually  on  the  lower  slopes  and  in  the  valleys,  and 
especially  in  the  broad  meadows,  around  lakes  and 
along  streams.  Sheep  are  more  apt  to  find  feed 
in  the  forests,  that  is  under  the  trees ;  cattle  prefer 
the  open;  they  usually  avoid  the  forest,  preferring 
to  keep  out  on  the  open  meadows  and  grassy  slopes. 
Naturally  some  ranges  have  feed  at  some  seasons 
of  the  year  and  other  ranges  at  other  seasons. 
Some  of  the  National  Forests  in  California  extend 
from  an  elevation  of  a  few  hundred  feet  in  the  foot- 
hills of  the  great  valleys  to  an  elevation  of  more 
than  10,000  feet  at  the  crest  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains.  The  lower  foothills  afford  excellent 
feed  soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  fall  rains  in 
November  and,  due  to  the  very  mild  winter  which 
this  region  enjoys,  there  is  excellent  feed  in  Feb- 
ruary and  March.  This  is  known  as  winter  range. 
The  medium  high  slopes  of  the  mountains  have  a 
later  growing  season  and  the  sheep  and  cattle 
reach  there  about  June  and  stay  until  August  or 
September.  Still  higher  up  the  forage  matures 


204        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

later  and  the  grazing  season  extends  from  August 
until  November.  At  these  elevations  the  snow- 
banks usually  lie  until  July  and  the  growing  season 
is  very  short,  for  the  new  snow  usually  buries  the 
vegetation  about  the  first  of  November.  Thus 
«/  stockmen  have  what  they  call  "winter  range," 
"summer  range,"  and  "fall  range,"  depending  upon 
what  seasons  of  the  year  the  forage  crop  can  be 
utilized.  The  National  Forests  on  the  whole  con- 
tain very  little  winter  range,  hence  stockmen  must 
move  their  stock  in  the  fall  to  private  lands  at 
lower  elevations  either  where  the  climate  is  consid- 
erably warmer  or  where  there  is  very  little  snowfall. 
A  large  part  of  the  western  winter  grazing  lands 
are  in  regions  of  light  snowfall,  such  as  at  the  lower 
elevations  in  Utah,  Nevada,  Wyoming,  and  Colo- 
rado. Here  the  stock  feeds  on  dry  grass.  Stock- 
men who  cannot  get  winter  range  lands  must  feed 
their  stock  at  ranches. 

j  The  characteristic  habits  of  sheep  and  cattle  re- 
quire that  they  be  handled  differently  on  the  range. 
Sheep  are  herded  in  bands  while  cattle  are  handled 
in  scattered  groups.  The  new  and  approved 
method  of  handling  sheep  called  the  "burro  sys- 
tem" calls  for  a  burro  with  the  sheep  to  pack  the 


NATIONAL  FOliEST  RESOURCES  -205 

herder's  blankets  and  provisions.  The  herder 
camps  where  night  overtakes  him.  The  herder  and 
his  band  keep  moving  over  the  allotted  range  from 
one  camp  to  another  until  he  has  covered  the  whole 
range.  After  leaving  his  last  camp  he  is  ready  to 
begin  all  over  again,  since  the  feed  near  the  camp 
where  he  began  has  had  two  to  three  weeks'  time 
to  grow  a  new  crop.  Cattle  usually  run  loose  sin- 
gly or  in  groups  on  their  allotted  range.  Usually 
a  range  rider  is  camped  on  the  range  to  keep  the 
cattle  from  straying  to  other  ranges.  He  salts  the 
cattle  to  keep  them  on  their  own  range,  takes  care 
of  cattle  that  have  gotten  sick,  and  takes  care  of 
the  stock  in  other  ways. 

Grazing  Districts  and  Grazing  Units.  The  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture  not  only  has  the  authority 
to  regulate  grazing  and  prescribe  the  schedule  of 
grazing  fees  to  be  charged  but  he  also  regulates 
the  number  and  class  of  stock  which  are  allowed  to 
graze  on  each  National  Forest  annually. 

The  ranges  within  the  National  Forests  are  used 
by  the  kind  of  stock  for  which  they  are  best  adapted 
except  when  this  would  not  be  consistent  with  the 
welfare  of  local  residents  or  the  proper  protection 
of  the  Forests.  For  convenience  in  administration 


206        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

Forests  are  divided  into  grazing  districts.  A  typi- 
cal Forest  is  divided  into  from  4  to  6  districts  which 
may  be  natural  grazing  units,  natural  administra- 
tive units  (coinciding  with  the  Ranger  districts),  or 
parts  of  the  Forest  used  by  different  classes  of  stock 
or  parts  of  the  Forest  having  different  lengths  of 
grazing  seasons.  Each  grazing  district  is  also  sub- 
divided into  smaller  divisions,  units,  or  allotments. 
These  are  usually  natural  divisions  defined  by  top- 
ographic boundaries,  such  as  ridges,  mountains, 
streams,  etc.,  or  more  or  less  artificial  divisions 
determined  by  the  class  of  stock  which  uses  them. 
For  example,  cattle  and  horses  ordinarily  graze  in 
the  valleys  along  the  streams,  while  sheep  and  goats 
graze  the  crests  of  ridges  and  the  slopes  of  moun- 
tains and  will  cross  none  but  shallow  streams. 
Each  range  division  or  unit  is  usually  given  a  well- 
known  local  name,  such  as  "Duck  Lake  Unit"  or 
"Clover  Valley  Unit."  One  or  more  stockmen  may 
be  allotted  to  such  a  unit,  depending  upon  the  size 
of  the  unit  and  the  number  of  animals  it  can  feed. 
If  only  one  stockman.uses  it,  it  becomes  an  individ- 
ual allotment.  Usually  a  sheep  owner  with  several 
large  bands  of  sheep  is  allotted  one  large  unit 
adapted  to  sheep  grazing,  while  a  large  unit 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     207 

adapted  to  cattle  and  horses  may  be  allotted  to  one 
large  cattle  owner  or  to  two  or  more  smaller  own- 
ers. The  manner  in  which  sheep  and  goats  are 
handled  makes  individual  allotments  both  practica- 
ble and  desirable. 

The  boundaries  of  range  allotments  are  usually 
well  defined.  In  the  case  of  sheep  they  are  marked 
with  cloth  posters.  In  most  Forests  range  allot- 
ments are  fairly  well  settled.  Each  stockman  gets 
with  his  permit  each  spring  a  small  map  showing 

^     • 

his  own  range  and  the  surrounding  ranges.  77. ' 
Who  Are  Entitled  to  Grazing  Privileges*'  The 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  has  the  authority  to  per- 
mit, regulate,  or  prohibit  grazing  on  the  National 
Forests.  Under  his  direction  the  Forest  Service 
allows  the  use  of  the  forage  crop  as  fully  as  the 
proper  care  and  protection  of  the  National  Forests 
and  the  water  supply  permit.  The  grazing  use_n£ 
the  National  Forest  lands  is  therefore  only  a.  per- 
sonal  and  non-transferable  privilege.^  This  privi- 
lege is  a  temporary  one,  allowable  under  the  law 
only  when  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  purposes 
for  which  the  National  Forests  were  created.  It  is 
non-transferable  because  it  is  based  upon  the  pos- 
session of  certain  qualifications  peculiar  to  the  per- 


208        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

mittee.  To  understand  these  qualifications  it  is 
necessary  to  briefly  look  into  the  history  of  the  graz- 
ing of  live  stock  on  the  western  grazing  lands. 

By  long  use  of  the  public  lands  of  the  United 
States  for  grazing  purposes,  long  before  the  Na- 
tional Forests  were  created,  stock  owners  have  been 
allowed  to  graze  their  stock  upon  such  lands  under 
certain  conditions  of  occupancy,  residence,  and 
ownership  of  improved  lands  and  water  rights. 
This  use,  continuing  through  a  long  period  of 
years,  has,  in  the  absence  of  congressional  legisla- 
tion, been  commonly  accepted  in  many  communi- 
ties, even  receiving  the  recognition  of  certain  of  the 
courts.  It  was  allowed  under  "unwritten  law,"  as 
it  were,  only  by  the  passive  consent  of  the  United 
States,  but  by  force  of  the  presidential  proclama- 
tion creating  National  Forests,  such  passive  con- 
sent ceased,  being  superseded  by  definite  regula- 
tions by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  prescribed 
under  the  authority  of  Congress.  Therefore  graz- 
ing stock  on  the  Forests,  as  it  was  done  before  the 
Forests  were  created,  is  trespass  against  the  United 
States.  Due  to  the  fact  that  local  stockmen  have 
used  certain  public  ranges  year  after  year  by  the 
passive  consent  of  the  United  States,  these  stock- 


Figure  73.  Counting  sheep  as  they  leave  the  corral.  Sheep  and 
cattle  are  pastured  on  National  Forests  at  so  many  cents  per  head, 
hence  they  must  be  counted  before  they  enter  in  the  spring.  Wa- 
satch  National  Forest,  Utah. 

Figure  74.  Logging  National  Forest  timber.  Santa  Fe  National 
Forest,  New  Mexico. 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     209 

men  are  recognized  in  these  localities  as  having 
preference  rights  or  equities  in  the  use  of  range 
lands.  These  equities  form  the  basis  upon  which 
grazing  privileges  are  allowed. 

Grazing  permits  are  issued  only  to  persons  enti- 
tled to  share  in  the  use  of  the  range  within  the  Na- 
tional Forests  by  reason  of  their  fulfilling  certain 
conditions  or  requirements.  Prior  use  and  occu- 
pancy of  National  Forest  lands  for  grazing  pur- 
poses is  the  first  and  foremost  requirement.  Local 
residence  and  ownership  of  improved  ranch  prop- 
erty within  or  near  the  Forest  and  depejtdence 
upon  government  range  are  also  conditions  that 
may  entitle  a  stockman  to  grazing  privileges.  The 
Forest  Service  also  recognizes  those  stockmen  who 
have  acquired  by  purchase  or  inheritance  stock 
grazed  upon  National  Forest  lands  under  permit 
and  improved  ranch  property  used  in  connection 
with  the  stock,  provided  circumstances  warrant  the 
renewal  of  the  permit  issued  to  the  former  owner. 
The  regular  use  of  a  range  during  its  open  season 
for  several  successive  years  before  the  creation  of 
the  National  Forest  and  under  grazing  permit 
thereafter  is  what  is  meant  by  "prior  use"  or  "regu- 
lar occupancy."  The  longer  the  period  or  use  the 


210        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

greater  the  preference  right.  No  one  can  acquire 
this  right  to  the  use  of  National  Forest  range,  nor 
can  it  be  bought  or  sold,  but  stockmen  may  acquire 
a  preference  in  the  allotment  of  grazing  privileges. 
This  preference  right  does  not  entitle  him  to  con- 
tinued use  of  a  certain  part  of  a  Forest,  but  only  to 
preference  over  other  applicants  less  entitled  to 
consideration  in  the  use  of  the  ranges  open  to  the 
class  of  stock  which  he  wishes  to  graze.  Certain 
stockmen  may  be  given  preference  in  ranges  se- 
cured by  prior  use  and  occupancy  supplemented  by 
heavy  investments  in  improved  property  and  water 
rights. 

Citizens  of  the  United  States  are  given  prefer- 
ence in  the  use  of  the  National  Forests,  but  persons 
who  are  not  citizens  may  be  allowed  grazing  permits 
provided  they  are  bona  fide  residents  and  owners  of 
improved  ranch  property  either  within  or  adjacent 
to  a  National  Forest.  Regular  occupants  of  the 
range  who  own  and  reside  upon  improved  ranch 
property  in  or  near  Rational  Forests  are  given  first 
consideration,  but  will  be  limited  to  a  number 
which  will  not  exclude  regular  occupants  who  re- 
,side  or  whose  stock  are  wintered  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance from  the  National  Forests.  With  this  pro- 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     211 

vision  applicants  for  grazing  ( permits  are  given 
preference  in  the  following  order: 

Class  A.  Persons  owning  and  residing  upon  improved  ranch 
property  within  or  near  a  National  Forest  who  are  de- 
pendent upon  National  Forests  for  range  and  who  do  not 
own  more  than  a  limited  number  of  stock  (known  as  the 
protective  limit). 

Class  B.  Regular  users  of  National  Forests  range  who  do 
not  own  improved  ranch  property  within  or  near  a  Na- 
tional Forest,  and  persons  owning  such  ranch  property 
but  who  own  numbers  of  stock  in  excess  of  the  established 
limit. 

Class  C.  Persons  who  are  not  regular  users  of  the  National 
Forest  range  and  who  do  not  own  improved  ranch  prop- 
erty within  or  near  a  National  Forest.  Such  persons  are 
not  granted  permits  upon  Forests  which  are  fully  oc- 
cupied by  classes  A  and  B.  Classes  B  and  C  are  not 
allowed  to  increase  the  number  of  stock  grazed  under 
permit  except  by  the  purchase  of  other  permitted  stock. 

From  this  classification  it  is  very  evident  that  the 
small  local  stockmen  who  own  approximately  from 
30  to  300  head  of  cattle  and  from  500  to  2,000  head 
of  sheep  and  who  own  and  reside  upon  the  ranches 
near  the  Forests  are  given  the  preference  in  the  al- 
lotment of  grazing  privileges. 

Grazing  Permits.  Various  kinds  of  grazing  per- 
mits are  required  each  year  on  the  National  For- 
ests. These  are  known  as  ordinary  grazing  per- 


212        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

mits,  on-and-off  permits,  private  land  permits,  and 
crossing  permits. 

All  persons  must  secure  permits  before  grazing 
any  stock  on  a  National  Forest  except  for  the  few 
head  in  actual  use  by  prospectors,  campers,  ranch- 
ers, stockmen,  and  travelers  who  use  saddle,  pack 
and  work  animals,  and  milch  cows  in  connection 
with  permitted  operations  on  the  National  Forests. 
Under  these  conditions  JO  head  are  allowed  to 
graze  without  permit. 

Persons  owning  stock  which  regularly  graze  on 
ranges  partially  included  within  a  National  Forest, 
or  upon  range  which  includes  private  land  may  be 
granted  permits  for  such  portions  of  their  stock  as 
the  circumstances  appear  to  justify.  This  regula- 
tion provides  for  cases  where  only  a  part  of  a  nat- 
ural range  unit  is  National  Forest  land,  and  where 
the  economical  use  of  the  entire  unit  can  be  secured 
only  by  the  utilization  of  the  Forest  land  in  con- 
nection with  the  other  land.  The  regulation  con- 
templates a  movement  of  the  stock  governed  by 
natural  conditions,  between  the  Forest  range  a;nd 
the  adjoining  outside  range,  or  between  Forest 
land  and  intermingled  private  land.  This  is  called 
an  on-and-off  permit. 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     213 

Permits  on  account  of  private  lands  are  issued  to 
persons  who  own,  or  who  have  leased  from  the 
owners,  unf enced  lands  within  any  National  Forest 
which  are  so  situated  and  of  such  a  character  that 
they  may  be  used  by  other  permitted  stock  to  an 
extent  rendering  the  exchange  advantageous  to  the 
Government.  The  permits  allow  the  permittees  to 
graze  upon  National  Forest  land,  free  of  charge, 
the  number  of  stock  which  the  private  lands  will 
support,  by  waiving  the  right  to  the  exclusive  use 
of  the  private  land  and  allowing  it  to  remain  open 
to  other  stock  grazed  on  National  Forest  land  un- 
der permit. 

The  regular  grazing  permit  carries  with  it  the 
privilege  of  driving  the  permitted  stock  over  Na- 
tional Forest  lands  to  and  from  the  allotted  ranges 
at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  grazing  season 
and  from  the  range  to  the  most  accessible  shearing, 
dipping,  and  shipping  points  during  the  term  of  the 
permit.  But  crossing  permits  are  necessary  for 
crossing  stock  over  National  Forest  lands  to  points 
beyond  the  National  Forest,  for  crossing  stock  to 
private  lands  within  a  National  Forest,  or  for  cross- 
ing stock  to  reach  dipping  vats,  or  railroad  shipping 
points.  Rangers  sometimes  are  detailed  to  accom- 


214        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

pany  the  stock  and  see  that  there  is  no  delay  or 
trespassing.  No  charge  is  made  for  crossing  per- 
mits, but  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  persons 
crossing  stock  comply  with  the  regulations  govern- 
ing the  National  Forests  and  with  the  quarantine 
regulations  prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture and  the  state  authorities. 

$  Grazing  F/eHs.  The  full  grazing  fee  is  charged 
on  all  animals  Jffioer  6  months  of  .age  which  are  not 

ur*£*  + 

the  natural  increase  of  stock  upon  which  the  fees 
are  paid.  Animals  under  6  months  which  are  the 
natural  increase  of  permitted  stock  are  not  charged 
for.  A  reasonable  fee  is  charged  for  grazing  all 
kinds  of  live  stock  on  National  Forests.  The  rates 
are  based  upon  the  yearlong  rate  for  cattle,  which  is 
from  60  cents  to  $1.50  per  head,  depending  upon 
conditions  on  the  Forest.  The  yearlong  rates  for 
horses  are  25  per  cent,  more  and  the  yearlong  rate 
for  swine  25  per  cent,  less  than  the  rate  for  cat- 
tle. The  rate  for  sheep  is  25  per  cent,  of  the  year- 
long rate  for  cattle.  The  rates  for  all  kinds  of 
stock  for  periods  shorter  than  yearlong  are  com- 
puted in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  seasort  dur- 
mg  which  the  stock  use  National  Forest  lands.  All 
grazing  fees  are  payable  in  advance. 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     215 

When  notice  of  the  grazing  allowance,  periods, 
and  rates  for  the  year  has  been  received  by  the 
Supervisor  he  gives  public  notice  of  a  date  on  or 
before  which  all  applications  for  grazing  must  be 
presented  to  him.  These  public  notices  are  posted 
in  conspicuous  places,  usually  in  the  post  offices. 
Applications  for  grazing  permits  are  submitted  on 
blank  forms  furnished  by  the  Supervisor.  As  soon 
as  an  applicant  for  a  grazing  permit  is  notified  by 
the  Supervisor  that  his  application  has  been  ap- 
proved, he  must  remit  the  amount  due  for  grazing 
fees  to  the  District  Fiscal  Agent  and  upon  receipt 
of  notice  by  the  Supervisor  that  payment  has  been 
made  a  permit  is  issued  allowing  the  stock  to  enter 
the  Forest  and  remain  during  the  period  specified. 
All  grazing  fees  are  payable  in  advance  and  the 
stock  is  not  allowed  to  enter  the  National  Forest 
unless  payment  has  been  made. 

Stock  Associations.  The  thirty  or  more  grazing 
regulations  effective  on  the  National  Forests  are 
for  the  primary  purpose  of  making  the  National 
Forest  range  lands  as  useful  as  possible  to  the 
people  consistent  with  their  protection  and  perpetu- 
ation. It  is  clearly  impossible  to  meet  the  wishes 
and  needs  of  each  individual  user,  but  it  is  often 


216        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

entirely  possible  to  meet  the  wishes  of  the  majority 
of  users  if  made  known  through  an  organization. 
The  organization  of  stock  associations  is  encour- 
aged by  the  Forest  Service  and  the  opinions  and 
wishes  of  their  advisory  boards  are  recognized  when 
they  represent  general  rather  than  individual  or 
personal  interests.  It  is  often  possible  through 
these  organizations  to  construct  range  improve- 
ments such  as  corrals,  drift  fences,  roads,  trails,  and 
sources  of  water  supply  for  the  common  good  of 
the  members  of  the  organization  and  paid  for  by 
them. 

Protective  and  Maximum  Limits.  In  order  to 
secure  an  equitable  distribution  of  grazing  privi- 
leges, the  District  Forester  establishes  protective 
limits  covering  the  number  of  stock  for  which  the 
permits  of  Class  A  owners  will  be  exempt  from 
reduction  in  the  renewal  of  their  permits.  Permits 
for  numbers  in  excess  of  the  protective  limits  will 
be  subject  to  necessary  reductions  and  will  not  be 
subject  to  increase  in  number  except  through  pur- 
chase of  stock  or  ranches  of  other  permittees. 

Protective  limits  are  established  to  protect  per- 
mittees from  reduction  in  the  number  of  stock 
which  they  are  allowed  to* graze  under  permit  below 


Figure  75.  Sheep  grazing  on  the  Montezuma  National  Forest  at 
the  foot  of  Mt.  Wilson,  Colorado.  Over  7,500,000  sheep  and  goats 
grazed  on  the  National  Forests  during  the  fiscal  year  1917. 

Figure  76.  Grazing  cattle  on  a  National  Forest  in  Colorado. 
Permits  were  issued  during  1917  to  graze  over  2,000,000  cattle,  horses, 
and  swine  on  the  National  Forests. 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     217 

a  point  where  the  business  becomes  too  small  to  be 
handled  at  a  profit  or  to  contribute  its  proper  share 
toward  the  maintenance  of  a  home.  The  average 
number  of  stock  which  a  settler  must  graze  in  order 
to  utilize  the  products  of  his  farm  and  derive  a 
reasonable  profit  is  determined  upon  each  Forest 
or,  if  necessary,  upon  each  grazing  district  thereof, 
and  serves  as  the  basis  for  the  protective  limit. 
Protective  limits  have  been  established  for  various 
Forests  running  from  25  to  300  head  of  cattle  and 
from  500  to  2,000  head  of  sheep  and  goats. 

Increases  above  the  protective  limit  are  allowed 
only  to  purchasers  of  stock  and  ranches  of  permit 
holders  and  any  such  increase  must  not  exceed  the 
maximum  limit.  Class  A  permittees  owning  a  less 
number  of  stock  than  the  protective  limit  are  al- 
lowed to  increase  their  number  gradually.  When- 
ever it  is  found  necessary  to  reduce  the  number  of 
stock  allowed  in  any  National  Forest,  Class  C  stock 
is  excluded  before  the  other  classes  are  reduced. 
The  reduction  on  a  sliding  scale  is  then  applied  to 
Class  B  owners.  Class  A  owners  are  exempt  from 
reduction.  When  new  stock  owners  are  allowed 
the  use  of  National  Forest  range  upon  a  Forest 
already  fully  stocked,  reductions  in  the  number  of 


218        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

permitted  stock  of  Class  B  and  C  owners  is  made 
in  order  to  make  room  for  the  new  man.  Thus  it  is 
seen  that  the  matter  of  protective  limits  is  actually  ' 
a  protection  to  the  small  stock  owner;  he  is  pro- 
tected from  the  monopoly  of  the  range  by  big  cor- 
porations. 

When  necessary  to  prevent  monopoly  of  the 
range  by  large  stock  owners,  the  District  Forester 
establishes  maximum  limits  in  the  number  of  stock 
for  which  a  permit  may  be  issued  to  any  one  person, 
firm  or  corporation. 

Prohibition  of  Grazing.  It  often  becomes  neces- 
sary to  prohibit  all  grazing  on  an  area  within  a 
National  Forest  or  at  least  to  materially  reduce  the 
amount  of  stock  which  is  allowed  to  graze  on  a  given 
area.  Sheep  may  be  excluded  from  a  timber-sale  - 
area  for  a  certain  number  of  years  after  cutting  or 
until  the  reproduction  has  become  well  established. 
Where  planting  operations  are  being  carried  on  it 
is  usually  necessary  to  exclude  all  classes  of  stock. 
If  investigations  show  that  grazing  is  responsible 
for  the  lack  of  reproduction  over  a  considerable 
area,  the  area  or  a  portion  of  it  may  be  withdrawn 
from  range  use  until  young  growth  has  become 
established  again.  The  watersheds  of  streams  sup- 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     219 

plying  water  for  irrigation,  municipal  or  domestic 
purposes  may  be  closed  to  grazing  of  any  or  all 
kinds  of  domestic  stock  when  necessary  to  prevent 
erosion  and  floods  or  diminution  in  water  supply. 
Camping  grounds  required  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  public  may  be  closed  to  the  grazing  o£  per- 
mitted stock.  Limited  areas  which  are  the  natural, 
breeding  or  feeding  grounds  of  game  animals  or 
birds  may  be  closed  to  grazing.  Areas  within  Na- 
tional Forests  infested  seriously  by  poisonous 
plants  may  be  closed  to  grazing. 

Protection  of  Grazing  Interests.  The  protec- 
tion of  National  Forest  grazing  interests  is  secured 
by  the  prevention  of  overgrazing,  by  the  preven- 
tion of  damage  to  roads,  trails,  or  water  sources,  by 
the  proper  bedding  of  sheep  and  goats,  by  the 
proper  disposition  of  carcasses,  by  salting  the  stock 
and  by  the  proper  observation  of  the  national  and 
state  live  stock  and  quarantine  laws. 

When  an  owner,  who  has  a  permit,  is  ready  to 
drive  in  his  stock  upon  the  National  Forest  he  must 
notify  the  nearest  Forest  officer  concerning  the 
number  to  be  driven  in.  If  called  upon  to  do  so  he 
must  provide  for  having  his  stock  counted  before 
entering  a  National  Forest.  Each  permittee  must 


220        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

repair  all  damage  to  roads  or  trails  caused  by  the 
presence  of  his  stock.  Sheep  and  goats  are  not  al- 
lowed to  be  bedded  more  than  three  nights  in  suc- 
cession in  the  same  place  (except  during  the  lamb- 
ing season)  and  must  not  be  bedded  within  300 
yards  of  any  running  or  living  spring.  The  car- 
casses of  all  animals  which  die  on  the  National  For- 
ests from  contagious  or  infectious  diseases  must  be 
burned  and  are  not  permitted  to  lie  in  the  close 
vicinity  of  water.  In  order  to  facilitate  the  han- 
dling of  stock  and  prevent  their  straying  off  their 
range,  they  must  be  sajieji'at  regular  intervals  and 
at  regular  places. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  moving  of  stock  by 
stockmen  from  their  home  ranches  to  their  grazing 
allotments  and  to  minimize  the  damage  of  grazing 
animals  to  the  Forests,  stock  driveways  are  estab- 
lished over  regular  routes  of  travel. 


SPECIAL    USES 
Wff 

All  uses  of  National  Forest  lands  and  resources 
permitted  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  except 
those  specifically  provided  for  in  the  regulations 
covering  water  power,  timber  sales,  timber  settle- 
ment, the  free  use  of  timber,  and  grazing,  are  desig- 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     221 

nated  "special  uses."  Among  these  are  the  use  or 
occupancy  of  lands  for  residences,  farms,  apiaries, 
dairies,  schools,  churches,  stores,  mills,  factories, 
hotels,  sanitariums,  summer  resorts,  telephone  and 
telegraph  lines,  roads  and  railways;  the  occupancy 
of  lands  for  dams,  reservoirs  and  conduits  not  used 
for  power  purposes ;  and  the  use  of  stone,  sand,  and 
gravel.  No  charge  is  made  for  a  large  number  of 
these  permits,  some  of  which  are  the  following: 
(1)  agricultural  use  by  applicants  having  prefer- 
ence rights  under  the  Act  of  June  11,  1906;  (2) 
schools,  churches,  and  cemeteries;  (3)  cabins  for 
the  use  of  miners,  prospectors,  trappers,  and  stock- 
men in  connection  with  grazing  permits;  (4)  saw 
mills  sawing  principally  National  Forest  timber; 
(5)  conduits,  and  reservoirs  for  irrigation  or  min- 
ing or  for  municipal  water  supply;  (6)  roads  and 
trails  (which  must  be  free  public  highways) ;  (7) 
telephone  lines  and  telegraph  lines  with  free  use  of 
poles  and  connections  for  the  Forest  Service. 

The  occupancy  and  use  of  National  Forest  land 
or  resources  under  a  special  use  permit  (except 
those  given  free  of  charge)  are  conditioned  upon 
the  payment  of  a  charge  and  are  based  upon  certain 
rates.  Agricultural  use  of  land  is  given  to  permit- 


222        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

tees  at  a  charge  of  from  25  cents  to  $1.00  an  acre. 
Not  over  160  acres  are  allowed  to  any  one  permit- 
tee. Cabins  cost  from  $3.00  to  $5.00;  hay  cutting 
from  20  to  50  cents  an  acre ;  hotels  and  roadhouses 
from  $10.00  to  $50.00;  pastures  from  4  to  25  cents 
per  acre;  residences  covering  from  one  to  three 
acres  cost  from  $5.00  to  $25.00;  resorts  from  $10.00 
to  $50.00;  stores  from  $5.00  to  $50.00  for  two  acres 
or  less;  and  other  uses  in  proportion. 

Perhaps  the  use  that  is  purchased  most  of  all  on 
the  National  Forests  is  that  for  residences  and  sum- 
mer homes.  On  many  of  the  Forests  they  are  al- 
ready in  great  demand.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
population  of  the  far  Western  States  seek  the  cool 
and  invigorating  air  of  the  mountains  in  the  early 
summer  because  the  heat  of  the  valleys,  especially 
in  California,  is  almost  unbearable. 

There  are  many  desirable  pieces  of  land  on  the 
National  Forests  that  are  being  reserved  by  the 
Forest  Service  especially  for  this  purpose  for  the 
people  of  the  neighboring  towns.  For  example,  on 
the  Angeles  National  Forest  in  California  the  Su- 
pervisor had  about  250  suitable  sites  surveyed  in  one 
picturesque  canyon  and  in  six  months  226  of  them 
were  under  special  use  permits  as  summer  homes. 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     223 

A  krge  reservoir — Huntington  Lake — was  con- 
structed on  the  Sierra  National  Forest  in  California 
as  the  result  of  a  dam  constructed  by  a  hydro- 
electric power  company.  Immediately  there  was  a 
keen  demand  among  the  residents  of  San  Joaquin 
Valley  for  summer  homes  on  the  shores  of  the  lake. 
In  a  few  years  it  is  expected  there  will  be  a  per- 
manent summer  colony  of  from  2,000  to  3,000  peo- 
ple. The  Forest  Service  has  already  authorized  an 
expenditure  of  $1,500  in  order  to  furnish  an  ade- 
quate supply  of  domestic  water  for  the  colony. 

CLAIMS    AND     SETTLEMENT 

Claims  can  be  initiated  upon  National  Forest 
lands  under  (1)  the  Act  of  June  11,  1906,  (2)  un- 
der the  mining  laws,  and  (3)  under  the  coal  land 
laws.  In  connection  with  these  claims  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  Forest  Service  to  examine  them,  but  the  de- 
termination of  questions  involving  title  is  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  the  Forest  Service  to  protect 
the  lands  of  the  United  States  within  the  National 
Forests  from  acquisition  by  those  who  do  not  seek 
them  for  purposes  recognized  by  law.  When  it  is 
apparent  that  an  entry  or  a  claim  is  not  initiated 


224        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

in  good  faith  and  in  compliance  with  the  spirit  of 
the  law  under  which  it  was  asserted,  but  is  believed 
from  the  facts  to  be  a  subterfuge  to  acquire  title 
to  timber  land,  or  to  control  range  privileges,  water, 
a  waterpower  site,  or  rights  of  way;  or  if  it  other- 
wise interferes  with  the  interests  of  the  National 
Forests  in  any  way,  the  Forest  Service  recommends 
a  contest,  even  if  the  technical  requirements  of  the 
law  appear  to  have  been  fulfilled.  It  is  bad  faith, 
for  instance,  to  hold  a  mining  or  agricultural  claim 
primarily  for  the  timber  thereon  or  to  acquire  a 
site  valuable  for  water  power  development. 

The  National  Forest  Homestead  Act.  At  the 
present  time  there  is  very  little,  if  any,  fraud  con- 
nected with  the  Forest  Homestead  Act  because  the 
land  is  classified  before  it  is  opened  to  entry.  The 
greater  part  of  the  work  dealing  with  fraudulent 
claims  is  a  relic  of  the  old  regime.  Before  the  For- 
ests were  established  many  Homestead  and  Timber 
and  Stone  entries  were  made  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  valuable  timber.  A  large  number  of  per- 
sons resorted  to  settlement  in  order  to  secure  the 
preference  right.  It  was  the  common  custom  in 
those  days  for  land  cruisers  to  locate  men  on  heavily 
timbered  land  either  before  or  immediately  after 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     225 

survey  and  before  the  filing  of  the  plats  and  the 
opening  of  the  land  to  entry.  A  cabin  would  be 
built  upon  the  land  and  some  unsubstantial  im- 
provements made.  When  the  National  Forests 
were  created  they  contained  great  numbers  of  these 
squatters'  cabins.  Many  were  abandoned  but  oth- 
ers attempted  to  secure  title.  Under  the  old  Tim- 
berand  Stone  Act  timber  could  be  secured  for  $2.50 
per  acre,  but  the  National  Forests  are  not  subject 
to  entry  under  this  act.  So  as  a  last  resort  the 
squatters  tried  to  prove  up  on  the  land  under  the 
Homestead  law.  When  the  Forests  were  created 
the  Service  found  a  great  many  of  these  fraudulent 
claims  on  their  books,  many  of  which  were  being 
brought  up  annually  for  patent.  Between  Decem- 
ber, 1908,  and  June  30,  1913,  a  total  of  498  entries 
for  National  Forest  land  were  canceled  in  a  single 
administrative  district.  These  entries  represented 
fraudulent  efforts  to  secure  title  to  85,906  acres  of 
National  Forest  land  for  speculative  purposes,  in- 
volving nearly  a  billion  feet  of  merchantable  tim- 
ber. During  the  fiscal  year  1913  alone  300,000,000 
board  feet  of  merchantable  timber  in  one  district 
was  retained  in  public  ownership  primarily  because 
the  Forest  officers  brought  out  the  facts.  The  lands 


226        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

in  all  cases  were  covered  with  heavy  stands  of  tim- 
ber, very  small  portions  of  the  land  had  been 
cleared,  the  claimant's  residence  on  the  land  was  not 
in  compliance  with  the  law,  seldom  was  any  crop 
raised  on  the  land,  and  the  claimant  in  other  ways 
did  not  carry  out  the  intent  of  the  law. 

The  Act  of  June  11, 1906,  known  as  the  National 
Forest  Homestead  Act,  provides  for  the  acquisition 
by  qualified  entrymen  of  agricultural  lands  within 
National  Forests.  The  Act  is  in  effect  an  exten- 
sion of  the  general  provisions  of  the  Homestead 
laws  to  the  agricultural  lands  within  the  National 
Forests,  with  the  essential  difference  that  the  land 
must  be  classified  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
as  chiefly  valuable  for  agriculture. 

This  Act  authorizes  the  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture in  his  discretion  to  examine  and  ascertain, 
upon  application  or  otherwise,  the  location  and  ex- 
tent of  lands  both  surveyed  and  unsurveyed  in  the 
National  Forests,  chiefly  valuable  for  agriculture, 
which  may  be  occupied  for  agricultural  purposes 
without  injury  to  the  National  Forests  or  public  in- 
terests. He  is  authorized  to  list  and  describe  such 
lands  by  metes  and  bounds  or  otherwise  and  to  file 
such  lists  and  descriptions  with  the  Secretary  of  the 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     227 

Interior  for  opening  to  entry  in  accordance  with 
the  provisions  of  the  Act.  Agricultural  lands 
listed  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  are  opened 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  to  homestead  entry 
in  tracts  not  exceeding  160  acres  at  the  expiration 
of  60  days  from  the  filing  of  the  lists  in  the  local 
Land  Office.  Notice  of  the  filing  of  the  list  is 
posted  in  the  local  Land  Office  and  is  published  for 
a  period  of  not  less  than  four  weeks  in  a  local  news- 
paper. The  Act  provides  that  the  person  upon 
whose  application  the  land  is  examined  and  listed, 
if  a  qualified  entryman,  shall  have  the  preference 
right  of  entry.  To  exercise  this  preference  right, 
application  to  enter  must  be  filed  in  the  local  Land 
Office  within  60  days  after  the  filing  of  the  list  in 
that  office.  The  entryman  can  perfect  his  title  to 
the  land  within  a  certain  period  of  years  by  fulfill- 
ing certain  conditions  of  residence  and  cultivation. 
By  the  Act  of  June  6, 1912,  known  as  the  "Three 
Year  Homestead  Act,"  the  period  of  residence 
necessary  to  be  shown  in  order  to  entitle  a  person  to 
patent  under  the  Homestead  laws  is  reduced  from 
5  to  3  years  and  the  period  within  which  a  home- 
stead entry  may  be  completed  is  reduced  from  7  to 
5  years.  The  new  law  requires  the  claimant  to 


228        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

cultivate  not  less  than  M.e  of  the  area  of  his  entry 
beginning  with  the  second  year  of  entry  and  not 
less  than  %  beginning  with  the  third  year  and  until 
final  proof,  except  that  in  the  case  of  the  enlarged 
Homestead  laws,  double  the  areas  given  are  re- 
quired. On  a  160-acre  claim,  therefore,  it  is  re- 
quired that  %  or  20  acres  be  under  cultivation.  A 
mere  breaking  of  the  soil  does  not  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  statute,  but  such  breaking  of  the  soil 
must  be  accompanied  by  planting  and  sowing  of 
seed  and  tillage  for  a  crop  other  than  native  grasses. 
The  period  within  which  the  cultivation  should  be 
made  is  reckoned  from  the  date  of  the  entry.  The 
Secretary  of  the  Interior,  however,  is  authorized 
upon  a  satisfactory  showing  therefor  to  reduce  the 
required  area  of  cultivation  on  account  of  financial 
disabilities  or  misfortunes  of  the  entryman  or  on 
account  of  special  physical  and  climatic  conditions 
of  the  land  which  make  cultivation  difficult.  The 
entryman  must  establish  an  actual  residence  upon 
the  land  entered,  6  months  after  the  date  of  the 
entry.  After  the  establishment  of  residence  the 
entryman  is  permitted  to  be  absent  from  the  land 
for  one  continuous  period  of  not  more  than  5 
months  in  each  year  following.  He  must  also  file 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     229 

at  the  local  Land  Office  notice  of  the  beginning  of 
such  intended  absence. 

The  Mining  Laws.  Mineral  deposits  within 
National  Forests  are  open  to  development  exactly 
as  on  unreserved  public  land.  A  prospector  can 
go  anywhere  he  chooses  and  stake  a  claim  wherever 
he  finds  any  evidences  of  valuable  minerals.  The 
only  restriction  is  that  mining  claims  must  be  bona 
fide  ones  and  not  taken  up  for  the  purpose  of  ac- 
quiring valuable  timber  or  a  town  or  a  water  power 
site,  or  to  monopolize  the  water  supply  of  a  stock 
range.  Prospectors  may  obtain  a  certain  amount 
of  National  Forest  timber  free  of  charge  to  be  used 
in  developing  their  claims.  More  than  500  mining 
claims  are  patented  within  the  National  Forests 
every  fiscal  year. 

A  good  example  of  mining  claims  located  for 
fraudulent  purposes  were  those  located  on  the  rim 
and  sides  of  the  Grand  Canyon  in  Arizona  to  pre- 
vent the  people  from  gaining  free  access  to  the 
canyon  and  make  them  pay  to  enter  it.  These 
claims  were  shown  to  be  fraudulent  since  no  de- 
posits of  any  kind  were  ever  found  on  them.  They 
were  canceled  by  the  higher  courts  and  the  land 
reverted  to  the  people. 


230        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

Coal-Land  Laws.  Coal  lands  are  mineral  lands 
and  as  such  are  subject  to  entry  the  same  as  other 
mineral  lands  in  the  National  Forests. 

ADMINISTRATIVE   USE   OF  NATIONAL  FOREST  LANDS 

Lands  within  National  Forests  may  be  selected 
for  administrative  uses  such  as  Supervisor's  and 
Ranger's  headquarters,  gardens,  pastures,  corrals, 
planting  or  nursery  sites  or  rights -of -way.  These 
administrative  sites  are  necessary  for  the  present 
and  probable  future  requirements  of  the  Forest 
Service  for  fire  protection  and  the  transaction  of 
business  on  the  National  Forests. 

WATER    POWER,    TELEPHONE,    TELEGRAPH,    AND 
POWER    TRANSMISSION    LINES 

Along  the  streams  within  the  National  Forests 
are  many  sites  suitable  for  power  development. 
These  are  open  to  occupancy  for  such  purposes  and 
have  the  advantage  of  being  on  streams  whose  head- 
waters are  protected.  The  aggregate  capacity  of 
the  water  power  sites  on  the  National  Forests  is 
estimated  at  12,000,000  horsepower. 

The  Government  does  not  permit  the  monopo- 
lization of  power  in  any  region  or  allow  sites  to  be 


Figure  77.  North  Clear  Creek  Falls,  Rio  Grande  National  Forest, 
Colorado.  The  National' Forests  contain  about  one-third  of  all  the 
potential  water-power  resources  of  the  United  States. 

Figure  78.  The  power  plant  of  the  Colorado  'Power  Company,  on 
the  Grand  River,  Holy  Cross  National  Forest.  Colorado  Every  fis- 
cal year  there  is  a  substantial  increase  in  water  power  development 
on  the  National  Forests. 


NATIONAL  FOREST  RESOURCES     231 

held  for  speculative  purposes.  The  objects  of  the 
regulations  are  to  secure  prompt  and  full  develop- 
ment and  to  obtain  a  reasonable  compensation  for 
the  use  of  the  land  occupied  and  the  beneficial  pro- 
tection given  the  watershed. 

Permits  for  power  development  on  the  National 
Forests  usually  run  for  a  term  of  50  years  and  may 
be  renewed  at  their  expiration  upon  compliance 
with  the  regulations  then  existing.  Such  permits, 
while  granting  liberal  terms  to  applicants,  contain 
ample  provision  for  the  protection  of  the  public 
interests. 

Applications  for  power  permits  are  filed  with  the 
District  Forester  of  the  Forest  Service  District  in 
which  the  desired  site  is  located.  Preliminary  per- 
mits are  issued  to  protect  an  applicant's  priority 
against  subsequent  applicants  until  he  has  had  an 
opportunity  to  study  the  proper  location  and  de- 
sign of  the  project  and  to  obtain  the  data  necessary 
for  the  final  application.  Operation  is  allowed 
under  the  final  permit  only.  The  permittee  is  re- 
quired to  pay  an  annual  rental  charge  under  the 
preliminary  and  final  power  permits  and  definite 
periods  are  specified  for  the  filing  of  the  final  appli- 
cation, beginning  of  construction  and  of  operation. 


232        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

The  rental  charges  are  nominal  in  amount,  the 
maximum  being  about  M.G  of  a  cent  per  kilowatt 
hour.  The  amount  of  annual  payment  for  trans- 
mission lines  is  $5.00  for  each  mile  or  fraction 
thereof  if  National  Forest  land  is  crossed  by  the 
line.  No  rental  charges  are  made  for  small  power 
projects  (under  100  horsepower  capacity),  or  for 
transmission  lines  used  in  connection  therewith,  or 
for  transmission  lines  which  are  part  of  a  power 
project  under  permit  or  for  any  power  project  in 
which  power  is  to  be  used  by  a  municipal  corpora- 
tion for  municipal  purposes. 

The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  has  authority  to 
permit  the  use  of  rights-of-way  through  the  Na- 
tional Forests  for  conduits,  reservoirs,  power 
plants,  telephone  and  telegraph  lines  to  be  used  for 
irrigation,  mining,  and  domestic  purposes  and  for. 
the  production  and  transmission  of  electric  power. 
No  rental  charges  are  made  for  the  telephone  and 
telegraph  rights-of-way,  but  the  applicant  must 
agree  to  furnish  such  facilities  to  Forest  officers  and 
to  permit  such  reasonable  use  of  its  poles  or  lines 
as  may  be  determined  or  agreed  upon  between  the 
applicant  and  the  District  Forester. 


Figure  79.  This  is  only  one  of  the  thousands  of  streams  in  the 
National  Forests  of  the  West  capable  of  generating:  electric  power. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  over  40  per  cent,  of  the  water  power 
resources  of  the  western  states  are  included  in  the  National  Forests. 
Photo  by  the  author. 

Figure  80.  View  in  the  famous  orange  belt  of  San  Bernardino 
County,  California.  These  orchards  depend  absolutely  upon  irriga- 
tion. The  watersheds  from  which  the  necessary  water  comes  are  in 
the  National  Forests  and  are  protected  by  the  Forest  Service.  Some 
of  the  smaller  watersheds  in  these  mountains  are  said  to  irrigate 
orchards  valued  at  $10,000,000. 


*/, 


APPENDIX 

TABLE  OF  LAND  AREAS  WITHIN  THE  NATIONAL 

FOREST  BOUNDARIES 

June  30,  1917 


II 

State  and  Forest  .2  | 
Qfc 

Headquarters 
1    of 
Forest 
Supervisor 

National 
Forest 
Land 
(acres) 

Patented 
and  other 
lands 
(acres) 

Total 
area 
(acres) 

ALASKA 

Chugach            6 

Ketchikan 

5,418,753 

113,682 

5,532,435 

Tongass            6 

Ketchikan 

15,451,716 

29,284 

15,481,000 

ARIZONA 

Apache             3 
Chiricahua  1     3 

Springerville 
Tucson 

1,182,782 
348,157 

93,618 
10,691 

1,276,400 

358,848 

Coconino           3 

Flagstaff 

1,601,598 

161,799- 

1,763,397 

Coronado          3 

Tucson 

959,304 

39,676 

998,980 

Crook               3 

Safford 

870,130 

14,870 

885,000 

Dixie  i              4 

St.  George, 

Utah 

17,680 

17,680 

Kaibab             4 

Kanab,  Utah 

1,072,375 

525 

1,072,900 

Manzano  1        3 

Albuquerque, 

N.  M. 

27,708 

29,724 

57,432 

Prescott            3 

Prescott 

1,433,366 

186,589 

1,619,955 

Sitgreaves        3 

Snowflake 

659,337 

234,883 

893,720 

Tonto               3 

Roosevelt 

1,994,239 

39,521 

2,033,760 

Tusayan           3 

Williams            i 

1,602,750 

186,068 

1,788,818 

ARKANSAS 

Arkansas          7 

Hot  Springs 

'  626,746 

331,544 

958,290 

Ozark                7 

Harrison 

291,840 

237,338 

529,178 

CALIFORNIA 

Angeles            5 

Los  Angeles       i 

820,980 

240,723 

1,061,703 

California        5 

Oriental 

807,444 

255,178 

1,062,622 

Cleveland         5 

Escondido 

547,981 

265,635 

813,616 

Crater  1             6 

Medford,  Ore. 

46,977 

10,045 

57,023 

Eldorado  1       5 

Placerville 

549,392 

286,408 

835,800 

Inyo  i                5 
Klamath  i         5 

Bishop 
Yreka 

1,269,980 
1,470,841 

67,800 
263,824 

1,337,780 
1,734,665 

Lassen              5 

Red  Bluff 

936,877 

384,466 

1,321^43 

Modoc              5 

Alturas 

1,182,986 

399,873 

1,532,859 

i  Area  of  National  Forest  in  more  than  one  State. 
233 


234        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 


TABLE  OF  LAND  AREAS— Continued 


11 

State  and  Forest  .2  | 

Pfc 

Headquarters 
of 
Forest 
Supervisor 

National 
Forest 
Land 
(acres) 

Patented 
and  other 
lands 
(acres) 

Total 
area 
(acres) 

Mono  *              5 

Gardnerville, 

Nev. 

784,620 

90,241 

874,861 

Monterey         5 

King  City 

316,058 

44,436 

360,494 

Plumas             5 

Quincy 

1,144,835 

288,025 

1,432,860 

Santa  Bar- 

bara             5 

Santa  Barbara 

1,688,571 

239,723 

1,928,294 

Sequoia            5 

Bakersfield 

2,194,926 

274,344 

2,469,270 

Shasta               5 

Sisson 

803,448 

783,432 

1,586,880 

Sierra                5 

Northfork 

1,489,934 

172,626 

1,662,560 

Siskiyou  1         6 

Grants  Pass, 

Ore. 

349,069 

52,726 

401,795 

Stanislaus         5 

Sonora 

810,399 

294,013 

1,104,412 

Tahoe                5 

Nevada  City 

542,226 

666,851 

1,209,077 

Trinity              5 

Weaverville 

1,430,547 

315,600 

1,746,147 

COLORADO 

Arapaho           2 

Hot  Sulphur 

Battlement       2 

Springs 
Collbran 

634,903 
651,227 

46,371 
26,113 

681,274 
677,340 

Cochetopa        2 

Saguache 

905,723 

24,497 

930,220 

Colorado           2 

Fort  Collins 

847,328 

302,266 

1,149,594 

Durango           2 

Durango 

614,129 

89,871 

704,000 

Gunnison          2 

Gunnison 

908,055 

43,255 

951,310 

Hayden  1          2 

Encampment, 

Wyo. 

65,598 

6,402 

72,000 

Holy  Cross      2 

Glenwood 

La  Sail           4 

Springs 
Moab,  Utah 

576,905 
27,444 

28,795 
176 

605,700 
27,620 

Leadville          2 

Leadville 

934,017 

122,503 

1,056,520 

Montezuma      2 

Mancos 

700,082 

112,018 

812,100 

Pike                  2 

Denver 

1,080,381 

175,731 

1,256,112 

Rio  Grande     2 

Monte  Vista 

1,136,884 

84,256 

1,221,140 

Routt                2 

Steamboat 

Springs 

833,459 

86,487 

919,946 

San  Isabel       2 

Westcliffe 

598,912 

52,288 

651,200 

San  Juan         2 

Pagosa  Spgs. 

617,995 

127,005 

745,000 

Sopris               2 

Aspen 

596,986 

59,014 

656,000 

Uncampahgre  2 

Delta 

790,349 

77,511 

867,860 

White  River     3 

Meeker 

848,018 

23,012 

871,030 

FLORIDA 

Florida             7 

Pensacola 

308,268 

367,152 

675,420 

IDAHO 

Boise                4 

Boise 

1,058,941 

59,173 

1,118,114 

Cache  1             4 

Logan,  Utah 

513,617 

31,447 

545,064 

1  Area  of  National  Forest  in  more  than  one  State. 


APPENDIX 


285 


TABLE  OF  LAND  AREAS— Continued 


-i->  t-l 

O    4) 

si 

State  and  Forest  .2  § 
A3 

Headquarters 
of 
Forest 
Supervisor 

National 
Forest 
Land 
(acres) 

Patented 
and  other 
lands 
(acres) 

Total 
area 
(acres) 

Caribou  1          4 

Montpelier 

681,540 

30,090 

711,630 

Challis              4 

Challis 

1,259,237 

10,753 

1,269,990 

Clearwater       1 

Orofino 

785,103 

122,743 

907,846 

Coeur 

d'Alene         1 

Coeur  d'Alene 

662,611 

127,623 

790,234 

Idaho                4 

McCall 

1,193,439 

15,841 

1,209,280 

Kaniksu  1         1 

Newport, 

Wash. 

198,757 

260,220 

458,977 

Lemhi              4 

Mackay 

1,095,924 

4,638 

1,100,562 

Minidoka  1       4 

Oakley 

509,536 

21,584 

531,120 

Nezperce          1 

Grangeville 

1,624,582 

41,497 

1,666,079 

Palisade  1         4 

St.  Anthony 

283,495 

9,820 

293,315 

Payette             4 

Emmett 

831,926 

31,748 

863,674 

Pend  Oreille    1 

Sandpoint 

676,014 

198,724 

874,738 

St.  Joe             1 

St.  Maries 

493,925 

481,743 

975,668 

Salmon             4 

Salmon 

1,621,707 

21,653 

1,643,360 

Sawtooth          4 

Hailey 

1,203,387 

16,743 

1,220,130 

Selway              1 

Kooskia 

1,693,711 

108,289 

1,802,000 

Targhee  *          4 

St.  Anthony 

283,495 

9,820 

293,315 

Weiser              4 

Weiser 

562,609 

98,291 

660,900 

MICHIGAN 

Michigan          2 

East  Tawas 

89,466 

74,412 

163,878 

MINNESOTA 

Minnesota        2 

Cass  Lake 

190,602 

121,874 

312,476 

Superior           2 

Ely 

857,255 

411,283 

1,268,538 

MONTANA 

Absaroka          1 

Livingston 

842,467 

145,243 

987,710 

Beartooth         1 

Billings 

662,537 

19,393 

681,930 

Beaverhead      1 

Dillon 

1,337,223 

27,777 

1,365,000 

Bitterroot         1 

Missoula 

1,047,012 

108,856 

1,155,868 

Blackfeet          1 

Kalispell 

865,077 

202,013 

1,067,090 

Cabinet             1 

Thompson 

Falls 

830,676 

195,874 

1,026,550 

Custer              1 

Miles  City 

428,922 

83,888 

512,810 

Deerlodge        1 

Anaconda 

833,178 

130,822 

964,000 

Flathead           1 

Kalispell 

1,802,905 

285,815 

2,088,720 

Gallatin            1 

Bozeman 

564,855 

344,575 

909,430 

Helena              1 

Helena 

687,983 

232,497 

920,480 

Jefferson          1 

Great  Falls 

1,039,766 

135,919 

1,175,685 

Kootenai           1 

Libby 

1,336,061 

287,279 

1,623,340 

Lewis  and 

Clark             1 

Chouteau 

811,161 

15,199 

826,360 

Lolo                  1 

Missoula 

850,677 

330,341 

1,181,018 

l  Area  of  National  Forest  in  more  than  one  State. 


236        OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 


TABLE  OF  LAND  AREAS— Continued 


13 

State  and  Forest  "2  § 

££ 

Headquarters 
of 
Forest 
Supervisor 

National 
Forest 
Land 
(acres) 

Patented 
and  other 
lands 
(acres) 

Total 
area 
(acres) 

Madison            1 

Sheridan 

958,691 

77,169 

1,035,860 

Missoula           1 

Missoula 

1,031,529 

336,662 

1,368,191 

Sioux  i               1 

Camp  Crook, 

S.  D. 

96,743 

17,798 

114,541 

NEBRASKA 

Nebraska          2 

Halsey 

206,074 

11,744 

217,818 

NEVADA 

Dixie  i               4 

St.  George, 

Utah 

282,543 

7,807 

290,350 

Eldorado  i        5 

Placerville,  Cal. 

400 

400 

Humboldt        4 

Elko 

690,562 

35,978 

726,546 

Inyo  i                5 

Bishop,  Cal. 

72,817 

i         2,513 

75,330 

Mono  i              5 

Gardnerville 

464,315 

19,204 

483,519 

Nevada             4 

Ely 

1,220,929 

39,871 

:     1,260,800 

Ruby                 4 

Elko 

342,405 

91,165 

433,570 

Santa  Rosa      4 

Elko 

269,658 

30,302 

299,960 

Tahoe  i             5 

Nevada  City, 

Cal. 

14,853 

47,274 

62,127 

Toiyabe            4 

Austin 

1,907,286 

17,514 

1     1,924,800 

NEW  MEXICO 

Alamo               3 

Alamogordo 

603,779 

269,877 

866,656 

Carson              3 

Taos 

856,647 

68,654 

925,301 

Chiricahua  i     3 

Tucson,  Ariz. 

126,478 

2,674 

129,152 

Datil                 3 

Magdalena 

2,670,412 

270,790 

2,941,202 

Gila                   3 

Silver  City 

1,463,708 

136,292 

1,600,000 

Lincoln             3 

Alamogordo 

551,427 

81,540 

632,967 

Manzano  i        3 

Albuquerque 

754,772 

488,007 

1,242,779 

Santa  F6          3 

Santa  Fe 

1354,545 

122,148 

i     1,476,693 

NORTH 

DAKOTA 

Dakota              1 

Camp  Crook, 

S.  D. 

6,054 

7,866 

13,920 

OKLAHOMA 

Wichita             7 

Cache 

61,480 

160 

61,640 

OREGON 

Cascade             6 

Eugene 

1,021,461 

73,024 

1,094,485 

Crater  i            6 

Medford 

793,044 

286,281 

1,079,325 

Deschutes         6 

Bend 

1,292,423 

217,437 

1,509,860 

Fremont           6 

Lakeview 

884,494 

86,782 

971,366 

Klamath  i         5 

Yreka,  Cal. 

4,401 

4,492 

8,893 

Malheur            6 

John  Day 

1,057,682 

205,158 

1,262,840 

Minam              6 

Baker 

430,757 

49,056 

479,813 

Ochoco              6 

Prmeville 

716,564 

102,466 

819,030 

i  Area  of  National  Forest  in  more  than  one  State. 


APPENDIX 


237 


TABLE  OF  LAND  AREAS— Continued 


II 

State  and  Forest  .g  § 

Headquarters 
of 
Forest 
Supervisor 

National 
Forest 
Land 
(acres) 

Patented 
and  other 
lands 
(acres) 

Total 
area 
(acres) 

Oregon              6 

Portland 

1,031,926 

108,994 

1,140,920 

Santiam            6 

Albany 

607,099 

112,884 

719,983 

Siskiyou  i          6 

Grants  Pass 

998,044 

257,206 

1,255,250 

Siuslaw             6 

Eugene 

544,178 

289,263 

833,441 

Umatilla           6 

Pendleton 

485,786 

79,199 

564,985 

Umpqua           6 

Roseburg 

1,011,097 

210,294 

1,221,391 

Wallowa           6 

Wallowa 

964,601 

104,810 

1,069,411 

Wenaha            6 

Walla  Walla, 

Wash. 

425,504 

36,540 

461,954 

Whitman          6 

Sumpter 

884,485 

115,008 

999,493 

PORTO  RICO 

Luquillo            7 

None 

12,443 

53,507 

65,950 

SOUTH 

DAKOTA 

Black  Hills  i    2 

Deadwood 

483,403 

118,608 

602,011 

Harney            2 

Custer 

548,854 

79,093 

627,947 

Sioux  i              1 

Camp  Crook 

75,524 

7,744 

83,268 

UTAH 

Ashley  i            4 

Vernal 

982,493 

9,607 

992,100 

Cache  i              4 

Logan 

265,594 

53,987 

319,581 

Dixie  i              4 

St.  George 

432,784 

26,106 

458,890 

Fillmore           4 

Ritchfield 

699,579 

79,711 

779,290 

Fishlake           4 

Salina 

661,245 

62,145 

723,390 

La  Sal  i             4 

Moab 

519,384 

16,286 

535,670 

Manti                4 

Ephraim 

781,800 

65,070 

846,870 

Minidoka  i        4 

Oakley,  Idaho 

72,123 

20,157 

92,280 

Powell               4 

Escalante 

689,927 

14,773 

704,700 

Sevier               4 

Panguitch 

729,061 

73,599 

802,660 

Uinta                4 

Provo 

988,602 

54,533 

1,043,135 

WTasatch           4 

Salt  Lake  City 

607,492 

56,913 

664,405 

WASHINGTON 

Chelan               6 

Chelan 

677,429 

46,681 

724,110 

Columbia          6 

Portland,  Ore. 

784,498 

157,702 

942,200 

Colville             6 

Republic 

754,886 

61,114 

816,000 

Kaniksu  i          1 

Newport 

257,859 

118,904 

376,763 

Okanogan         6 
Olympic            1 

Okanogan 
Olympia 

1,486,325 
1,534,689 

54,675 
117,311 

1,541,000 
1,652,000 

Rainier             6 

Tacoma 

1,315,891 

245,579 

1,561,470 

Snoqualmie      6 

Seattle 

698,043 

343,957 

1,042,000 

Washington      6 

Bellingham 

1,454,214 

35,786 

1,490,000 

Wenaha  i          6 

Walla  Walla 

313,434 

8,397 

321,831 

Wenatchee       6 

Leavenworth 

665,276 

491,724 

1,157,000 

i  Area  of  National  Forest  in  more  than  one  State. 


238       OUR  NATIONAL  FORESTS 


TABLE  OF  LAND  AREAS— Continued 


Sfc 
II 

State  and  Forest  .3  § 
ftfc 

Headquarters 
of 
Forest 
Supervisor 

National 
Forest 
Land 
(acres) 

Patented 
and  other 
lands 
(acres) 

Total 
area 
(acres) 

WYOMING 

Ashley  1            4 

Vernal,  Utah 

5,987 

73 

6,060 

Bighorn            2 

Sheridan 

1,119,725 

16,475 

1,136,200 

Black  Hills  i    2 

Deadwood,  S.D. 

144,759 

34,362 

179,121 

Bridger            2 

Pinedale 

710,570 

7,407 

717,977 

Caribou  1          4 

Montpelier, 

Idaho 

6,547 

813 

7,360 

Hayden  1          2 

Encampment 

322,175 

43,445 

365,620 

Medicine  Bow  2 

Laramie 

469,786 

41,596 

511,382 

Palisade  1         4 

St.  Anthony, 

, 

Idaho 

250,501 

3,119 

253,620 

Shoshone          2 

Cody 

1,576,043 

32,957 

1,609,000 

Targhee  1         4 

St.  Anthony, 

Idaho 

84,970 

480 

85,450 

Teton                4 

Jackson 

1,922,947 

48,245 

1,971,192 

Washakie         2 

Lander 

852,653 

12,220 

864,873 

Wyoming         4 

Afton 

899,980 

12,020 

912,000 

Aggregate  for  th< 

147  National 

Forests    

155,166,619 

21,085,541 

176,252,160 

1  Area  of  National  Forest  in  more  than  one  State. 


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